Food loss and waste have been identified as significant contributors to existing environmental challenges. Previous studies have extensively quantified losses and waste throughout the value chain. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the influence of packaging design on food residue quantities. This study analyses the technical emptiability of dairy product packaging, building upon previously described methods and proposing new methods for a standardized analysis. The results demonstrate significant variations in residue amounts depending on product type, fat content, viscosity, packaging type and design, as well as consumer handling. The findings indicate that residues of high-viscosity products, such as yoghurt drinks and buttermilk, can accumulate to a level exceeding 4% of the total filling weight in the packaging; meanwhile, the residues of low-viscosity products, such as milk, collectively represent less than 1% of the total filling weight. Consumer handling instructions on packaging significantly reduce residues, as shown by the instruction to shake before opening, which notably decreases the residues of high-viscosity products. Future legislation to minimize food waste and reduce the environmental impact of packaging will necessitate that the packaging industry produces easy-to-empty packaging. This will improve sorting, recycling, recyclate quality, and environmental impact, consequently enhancing the sustainability of dairy packaging.

The European Union aims for climate neutrality by 2050 and has proposed the Packaging and Packing Waste Regulation (PPWR) to promote a circular economy, focusing on reducing packaging waste. In this context, a comprehensive sustainability assessment for liquid dairy product packaging, including beverage cartons, bottles and to-go cups, in the DACH region (Germany, Austria and Switzerland) was conducted. The aim was to consider various ecological aspects of environmental impacts and circularity. As the aspect of recyclability is a core aspect in the PPWR, the calculation was of central interest in this project. Here, major differences in the waste management infrastructure between countries could be identified. The majority of assessed packaging falls below the PPWR’s 70% recyclability requirement, with Switzerland showing even lower recyclability due to poor packaging collection and recycling infrastructure. Significant discrepancies in packaging efficiency exist, indicating unnecessary resource consumption, especially in the case of to-go cups. Additionally, the carbon footprint of packaging materials can vary up to ten times within certain product categories, negatively impacting the environment. Good results were identified for the use of certified renewable resources. Overall, the results of the assessment demonstrate several areas for improvement in light of forthcoming regulatory requirements, which must be met in Germany and Austria.

The adoption of the PPWR by the Council of the European Union (EU/2025/40) in 2025 intensifies the regulatory pressure on packaging manufacturers and food producers. This necessitates their adaptation of packaging to the new standards and selection of materials by various sustainability criteria and minimum standards. The legal text places particular emphasis on recyclability and the carbon footprint. The dairy industry holds significant economic importance in the DACH region (Germany, Austria, and Switzerland); this study therefore analyzed and compared the recyclability and carbon footprint of selected product categories and diverse packaging options for butter, yogurt, spreads, curd cheese, and cottage cheese. This study found large differences within the product categories, and also between the assessed countries, due to differing waste management systems (collection, sorting, and recycling) and waste streams. A key finding is the substantial discrepancy in glass packaging, which significantly exceeds the emission values of other packaging systems. In terms of recyclability, glass packaging performs well due to the effectiveness of the recycling systems regarding the future effective PPWR. However, significant variations in recyclability were observed between Germany and Austria for tray and cup materials made of PP and PS. Notably, there is a preference for packaging systems without a cardboard sleeve over those with one. This study provides critical insights into the environmental performance of packaging materials in the dairy sector. It highlights the challenges posed by regulatory changes and the urgent need for region-specific strategies. By identifying key areas for improvement in packaging design and waste management, this work lays the foundation for achieving compliance with the PPWR and advancing the transition toward a circular economy in the DACH region.

The cosmetic industry is an important economic sector with expected growth in the upcoming years and a noticeable trend towards sustainable products and product packaging options. A critical aspect of packaging sustainability is the amount of product residue left in emptied containers, as this contributes to both economic losses for consumers and environmental waste. In this study, the emptiability of different packaging systems for shampoo, hair gel, hand cream, body lotion, face cream, eye cream, and serum is assessed by developing novel testing methods. The results show a significant dependence of emptiability on the packaging system and product properties. While jars and airless pump dispensers retain less than 1% of product residues for hand cream products, pump dispensers’ values of up to 26% were found. These results underline the importance of optimal packaging choices adapted to different products to avoid economic losses for the consumer, environmental impact due to wasted products, and a negative influence on the recyclability of packaging and quality of the recyclate. Manufacturers can use these insights to design packaging that not only reduces leftover product but also aligns with circular economy principles, ultimately lowering environmental impacts and improving consumer satisfaction.

The rapid expansion of the cosmetic products market, growing consumer eco-consciousness, and stricter packaging regulations, such as the PPWR, present significant challenges for the cosmetic industry. To assess the sustainability of cosmetic packaging, a benchmarking study was conducted across various product categories available in the DACH region (Germany, Austria, and Switzerland) using a set of selected indicators. The findings highlight an urgent need for action to ensure compliance with future PPWR requirements. While glass and aluminum packaging demonstrated high recyclability, plastic tubes often failed to meet the 70% recyclability target due to incompatible material combinations. Key barriers to recyclability included material incompatibility, metallization, and excessive colorization. Additionally, the use of recycled content in plastic and paper-based packaging was generally low, with only a few samples containing secondary materials. Other critical issues included packaging efficiency, the widespread use of secondary packaging, and use of uncertified renewable materials. Addressing these challenges will require industry-wide efforts to enhance material compatibility, increase recycled content, and optimize packaging design for greater sustainability.

The presence of microplastic in the environment has become a matter of significant concern regarding its impact on the food chain and, moreover, human health. The potential ways in which humans may be exposed to microplastic include ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact. To facilitate initial estimates of the potential for human exposure, a model has been developed that incorporates all of the major stages in the transfer of microplastic from its sources to direct human contact. Due to the scarcity of data available, a simplified gradation of exposure probability has been applied. Building on the results of published mass flow models for microplastics, the model is based on normalized values for the release of microplastics from different types of applications into environmental compartments, also considering the degradation of macroplastic. Published data investigating the contamination of different foods and beverages are evaluated, and the inhalation probability is assessed using air pollution data and breathing rates. In the final step, the potential for resorption through the gastrointestinal and the respiratory tract is estimated. The results obtained from this modelling indicate a high exposure potential for microplastic from tire wear via outdoor air and for various PET applications via indoor air. Furthermore, the results demonstrate a high potential for exposure via ingestion of food for plastics used in agriculture. The model’s results represent an initial attempt to estimate exposure probabilities for humans across all application categories of plastics and the most common polymers, taking into account the uncertainty of current research.