Integration of IoT and predictive modeling is critical for optimizing microclimate management in urban-agglomeration vertical farming. In this study, we present a hybrid digital twin approach that combines a physical microclimate model with a distributed IoT monitoring system to simulate and control the phytotron environment. A set of heat- and mass-balance equations governing the dynamics of temperature, humidity, and transpiration was implemented and parameterized using a genetic algorithm (GA)—an evolutionary optimization method—with real-time data collected over three intervals (72 h, 90 h, and 110 h) from LoRaWAN sensors (temperature, humidity, CO₂) and Wi-Fi-connected power meters managed by Home Assistant. The optimized model achieved mean temperature deviations ≤ 0.1 °C, relative humidity errors ≤ 2%, and overall energy consumption accuracy of 99.5% compared to measured values. The digital twin reliably tracked daily climate fluctuations and system energy use, confirming the accuracy of the hybrid approach. These results demonstrate that the proposed framework effectively integrates theoretical models with IoT-derived data to deliver precise environmental control and energy-use optimization in vertical farming, while also laying the groundwork for scalable digital twins in controlled-environment agriculture.

Red-leaf lettuces, rich in bioactive compounds like anthocyanins and flavonoids, offer health benefits by reducing oxidative stress and boosting immunity. This article provides an extensive review of the genetic, epigenetic, environmental, and technological factors influencing anthocyanin biosynthesis and leaf coloration in red-leaf lettuce, emphasizing its significance in agriculture and nutrition. The genetics of anthocyanin biosynthesis, environmental influences, practical applications, agronomic insights, and future directions are the main areas covered. Anthocyanin accumulation is regulated by structural, regulatory, and transporter genes, as well as the MYB-bHLH-WD40 (MBW) complex. Mutations in these genes impact coloration and stress responses. Advances in genomic studies, such as GWAS and QTL mapping, have identified key genes and pathways involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis, aiding breeding programs for desirable traits. In addition, light intensity, stress conditions (e.g., drought, temperature), and phytohormones affect anthocyanin levels and photomorphogenesis in general. Controlled environments, like vertical farms, optimize these conditions to enhance pigmentation and phytochemical content. LED lighting and tailored cultivation techniques improve color intensity, antioxidant capacity, and yield in controlled settings. Sustainable production technologies for red-leaf lettuce in vertical farms are being developed to meet consumer demand and promote functional foods, integrating genetic, epigenetic, and environmental research into agronomy. This review highlights red-leaf lettuce’s aesthetic, nutritional, and functional value, advocating for innovative cultivation methods to enhance its market and health potential.

The physiological, biochemical, and morphometric responses of two lettuce cultivars (Lactuca sativa L.), Gypsy and Pomegranate Lace, which differ in terms of leaf morphology and anthocyanin pigmentation, were examined under moderate light (290 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹) with the addition of blue light (BL, peak at 450 nm), UV-B (peak at 306 nm), and their combinations. Continuous low-intensity UV-B (30 mW m⁻²) was applied for 48 h—during the day with white (WL, Red: 51%, Green: 38%, Blue: 11%) or white + blue (WL + BL, Red: 30%, Green: 22%, Blue: 48%) light and at night alone—to assess the effects of sustained UVR8 activation in the absence of visible light. In the Pomegranate Lace cultivar, which has wrinkled leaves and localized anthocyanin pigmentation, the combination of WL + BL + UV-B enhanced the chlorophyll and carotenoid contents, photosynthetic rate, and stomatal conductance, whereas respiration did not change. These coordinated changes indicate efficient integration of cryptochrome and UVR8 signaling, which sustains photochemical efficiency and stimulates phenolic and carotenoid accumulation, reinforcing antioxidant capacity. In the Gypsy cultivar, which is characterized by smooth leaves and uniform pigmentation, UV-B + BL increased g_S along with the rates of respiration and photosynthesis and improved PSII efficiency. However, both cultivars showed a decrease in biomass and leaf area. Nevertheless, both cultivars exhibited increased antioxidant capacity, but in Gypsy, the addition of BL or UV-B affected the antioxidant capacity and PSII photochemical efficiency more effectively than in the Pomegranate Lace, likely due to deeper penetration in leaves and lower reflectance. Thus, long-term low-intensity UV-B radiation acts as a regulatory spectral cue that differentially modulates photosynthetic and antioxidant pathways. Its integration with blue light enables cultivar-specific optimization of photochemical resistance and metabolic resilience.

Digital twins (DTs) are increasingly used in controlled-environment agriculture to model microclimates and drive energy-efficient control. However, long-term drift and seasonal variability require continuous recalibration and controller retuning. We develop a self-adaptive DT of a phytotron chamber that combines an MAPE-K loop with an evolutionary heuristic. A genetic algorithm (GA) calibrates the DT parameters against IoT time series and subsequently optimizes heater control settings (two-position, three-position, and proportional modes) subject to comfort constraints on temperature and humidity. Six monitoring intervals (May–June 2025) are used for per-interval calibration and six-fold cross-validation. The calibrated DT reproduces temperature and humidity with high fidelity across unseen intervals: the average cross-validated deviations are 0.27 °C and 7.1%RH (30 transfers). Controller optimization yields cumulative energy savings of 186.54 kWh (3.24%) over six intervals, with per-interval savings ranging from 0.37% to 5.94%. Coupling GA-based DT calibration with model-in-the-loop controller optimization consistently reduces energy use while maintaining microclimate quality, providing a practical pathway for the robust, year-round operation of vertical farms.

The bulletin of Irkutsk State University. Series «Mathematics»

Red-leafed lettuces (RLLs) attract attention of both consumers and researchers due to their unique decorative and functional properties. The review considers modern concepts of the causes and mechanisms that control color shades and intensity of RLLs. They are also enriched in anthocyanins that have valuable antioxidant properties. Anthocyanins are plant pigments, flavonoid chromophores, which are largely responsible for the color of many fruits and flowers, and their antioxidant activity increases the value of RLLs for consumer health. For effective selection of RLLs, it is important to know to what extent the color of lettuces is determined by the genetic variation of genes controlling the biosynthesis of anthocyanins, and to what extent by the epigenetic regulation of their expression, for which it has been shown that it is regulated in response to changes in environmental factors such as light, humidity and temperature, as well as biotic and abiotic stresses and is an adaptive reaction of plants. A number of researchers note a change or loss of genes of the wild type during domestication (cultivation) of lettuces, which also leads to the loss of their color. Mutation of genes can lead to the creation of a green variety of lettuce, which can accumulate colorless flavonoids, also valuable for consumers. In addition, mechanisms are noted that allow to regulate the intensity of red coloring through the exposure of lettuces to the light with a different spectrum, up to its disappearance in the leaves of RLLs. Thus, by controlling the mechanism of leaf coloring, through the suppression or inactivation of genes that control the biosynthesis of color pigments and the degradation of chlorophyll, it is possible to create different shades within the same lettuce variety.