This paper provides a comparison of a designed method of a fault ride through (FRT) circuit, i.e., switch-type fault current limiter (STFCL) and bridge-type fault current limiter (BFCL), to optimize the electrical parameters of grid-connected solar systems (PVSs) under asymmetric single line-to-ground fault and symmetric three-phase fault. The main differences between switch- and bridge-type fault current limiters is the electric component devices such as the bridge rectifier, snubber capacitor, energy absorption bypass and current-limiting inductors. In addition, the designed FRT performance with the inverter control are analyzed in-depth, e.g., a well-adjusted proportional integral (PI) and proposed steepest descent (SD) controller are compared in the fault condition. To compare the proposed method with the conventional method, the AC power and voltage on a common coupling point (PCC) and DC link voltage of the PV system are analyzed with a MATLAB/Simulink model of a 100 kW three-phase grid-connected photovoltaic system. The simulation results of the proposed FRT circuit and SD controller verify the stability improvement and vibration-free and fast and robust responses of electrical parameters on both PV grid sides during asymmetric disturbances.

The Korean government is targeting the development of a renewable energy penetration of 30–35% by 2040 of the total generation. These conditions will decrease network stability due to a lack of inertia, especially in isolated systems, such as Jeju Island. HVDC systems with several balancing arrangements of reserve operation are used to maintain variability and uncontrollability of RES penetration. This paper presents the fast frequency reserves of HVDC control systems for frequency stability enhancement in the isolated power system by using a combined frequency containment process with grid stability standards. A new MIDC reserve operation control with angle and voltage deviation at the bus converter was developed to provide a faster and more appropriate balancing arrangement compared to the other concept. In addition, two layers of energy and transfer-capacity flexibility were considered to prevent the need to hunt for that balancing arrangement, as well as low nadir frequency, unavailability of the reserve and other constraints caused by each region having a different network size, HVDC interconnection capacity, and type. The proposed control schemes were verified by simulations on the Korean power system model implemented in PSS/E for different sizes of disturbance.

By 2040, the Korean government aims for a penetration rate of 30–35% of the total power from renewable sources. Due to a lack of inertia, particularly in remote systems such as those on Jeju Island, these circumstances will reduce network stability. To maintain the diversity and unpredictability of RES penetration, HVDC systems with an exchange of frequency containment reserve control are utilized. An exchange of frequency containment reserves control (E-FCR) is one of the balancing arrangement concepts of HVDC systems. However, the development of E-FCR concepts is vulnerable to cyber attacks because this concept only considers one wide-area measurement for data exchange. This study established a simultaneous cyber attack operation, i.e., an attack was set at the same time as a contingency operation that affects the balancing arrangement between two regions. Multiple possibilities of cyber attack and mitigation operations were suggested according to their ability to access information in the MIDC system. Then, a cyber detection strategy was proposed through a normalized correlation concept to activate mitigation control that could enhance the frequency stability by adjusting the value of the ramp-rate deviation between two HVDC types. By simulating the Korean power system model that was implemented in PSS/E, along with a Python script, simulation results demonstrated that a cyber attack on missing data can cause severe low-frequency nadir responses, and the proposed methodology can practically detect and mitigate cyber attacks.

In recent years, there has been a significant uptick in the integration of Inverter-Based Resources (IBRs) into the power grid, driven by the global shift toward renewable energy sources. The Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) has developed standardized models for these inverters to facilitate their representation in system studies, playing a crucial role in evaluating IBRs, especially those modeled as grid-following inverters (GFLs). However, with the increasing prevalence of IBRs, the adjustment of grid interaction between grid-forming inverters (GFMs) and GFLs should be considered in terms of frequency stability assessment. This study investigates the optimization of synchronous generators and IBR operations in more detail. The IBR operation is evaluated with considerations for ratio and penetration. The findings suggest that with over 50% IBR penetration, GFL capacity should be reduced, and GFM capacity should be over 35% of IBR to maintain grid frequency stability. Moreover, this study also explains advanced prediction of frequency nadir, particularly the optimal ratio of WECC generic and GFM through the least squares method. Furthermore, the small-signal dynamic characteristics of WECC are studied at various gain values to investigate frequency droop control.