Asian elephants have been an important part of wildlife ecotourism in Thailand for over two decades. Elephants in tourist camps are exposed to a variety of management styles and daily activities that can potentially affect health and welfare. This study investigated relationships between a novel welfare biomarker, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and daily camp activities, and compared results to glucocorticoid (GC) measures. Often no-riding camps are portrayed as providing better welfare than camps that offer riding. Therefore, we predicted that elephants at no-riding camps would have lower GC and higher IgA concentrations, and a low GC/IgA ratio. Forty-four female elephants from six elephant camps were divided into three groups based on riding activities: saddle-riding, bareback-riding, and no-riding. Fecal and salivary samples were collected monthly for 1 year along with evaluations of body condition, foot health, and wounding. Camp environment and management varied among camps, although the major difference was in riding activities. Concentrations of GCs and IgA varied among the working groups, but not always consistently between sample matrices. Overall fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations were lowest in the saddle-riding group. Only in one bareback-riding camp did the elephants exhibit a potentially positive welfare response with a low GC/IgA ratio over time. Other results varied between the two biomarkers, with considerable variability across camps, suggesting there is more to good welfare than whether elephants participate in riding or not. Several other human-induced stressors, like chaining, ankus use, and limited social opportunities are likely to be impacting well-being and should be considered to ensure management practices meet physical and psychological welfare needs.

Oxidative stress is a pathological condition that can have adverse effects on animal health, although little research has been conducted on wildlife species. In this study, blood was collected from captive Asian elephants for the assessment of five serum oxidative status markers (reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentrations; malondialdehyde, MDA; albumin; glutathione peroxidase, GPx; and catalase) in healthy (n = 137) and sick (n = 20) animals. Health problems consisted of weakness, puncture wounds, gastrointestinal distress, eye and musculoskeletal problems, and elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD). Fecal samples were also collected to assess glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) as a measure of stress. All data were analyzed in relation to age, sex, sampling season, and their interactions using generalized linear models, and a correlation matrix was constructed. ROS and serum albumin concentrations exhibited the highest concentrations in aged elephants (>45 years). No sex differences were found for any biomarker. Interactions were observed for age groups and seasons for ROS and catalase, while GPx displayed a significant interaction between sex and season. In pairwise comparisons, significant increases in ROS and catalase were observed in summer, with higher ROS concentrations observed only in the adult female group. Lower catalase activity was exhibited in juvenile males, subadult males, adult females, and aged females compared to subadult and adult elephants (males and females) in winter and the rainy season. There was a positive association between catalase activity and fGCMs (r = 0.23, p < 0.05), and a number of red blood cell parameters were positively associated with several of these biomarkers, suggesting high oxidative and antioxidative activity covary in red cells (p < 0.05). According to health status, elephants with EEHV-HD showed the most significant changes in oxidative stress markers, with MDA, GPx, and catalase being higher and albumin being lower than in healthy elephants. This study provides an analysis of understudied health biomarkers in Asian elephants, which can be used as additional tools for assessing the health condition of this species and suggests age and season may be important factors in data interpretation.

Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) is a virulent disease that causes severe hemorrhage and sudden death in Asian elephant calves. A change in hematology profiles is one indicator of infection before clinical signs appear; however, to be effective, individual baselines and age-matched reference values are needed. Stress has been speculated to be a factor in clinical EEHV cases, but relationships have not been demonstrated empirically. This study evaluated blood hematology and several stress response markers—salivary cortisol, fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM), salivary Immunoglobulin A (SIgA), and fecal IgA (FIgA) in samples collected for 1 year from three healthy calves with no EEHV history (non-EEHV), and six that had previously been infected, developed clinical signs and survived (prior-EEHV). Hematology values between non-EEHV and prior-EEHV elephants were not different and within published reference ranges. Concentrations of salivary cortisol, FGM, SIgA, and FIgA also were variable and showed seasonal differences, but no relationships to prior EEHV status. One of the prior EEHV calves became re-infected, developed hemorrhagic disease (HD), and died during the study period. That calf exhibited lymphocytopenia, monocytopenia, and thrombocytopenia. Additionally, all stress biomarker concentrations were lower in the 12 days before viremia was observed. Thus, as in other studies, changes in hematology occur with EEHV infection, while preliminary data in one calf suggests that stress-response measures might also be informative and should be studied further.

Background and Aim: Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) is a leading cause of fatal hemorrhagic illness in juvenile Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), often requiring urgent plasma transfusion. However, the biochemical stability of fresh-frozen plasma (FFP) during long-term storage has not been systematically evaluated in this species. This study assessed the stability of key plasma proteins, fibrinogen, clotting factor VIII, immunoglobulin G (IgG), and albumin, in FFP stored at −20°C for 4, 8, and 12 months, and compared them with fresh plasma to determine suitability for emergency clinical use. Materials and Methods: Plasma samples were collected from 20 healthy elephants and processed into fresh and frozen aliquots. Fibrinogen concentrations were quantified using the Clauss assay, factor VIII activity via a one-stage clotting assay, and IgG and albumin concentrations using colorimetric methods. A repeated-measures generalized linear model evaluated the effects of storage duration on protein stability, with post hoc Tukey adjustments. Results: Fibrinogen concentrations remained stable during storage, with no significant differences at 8 or 12 months compared with fresh plasma. Factor VIII activity declined progressively, with a significant 16% reduction after 12 months (p < 0.001), though values remained within clinically acceptable ranges. Conversely, IgG and albumin concentrations increased significantly during frozen storage, with 37% and 21% higher values, respectively, at 12 months, likely reflecting cryoconcentration. Neither sex nor other covariates significantly influenced protein stability. Conclusion: This study provides the first evidence that elephant FFP stored at −20°C retains acceptable biochemical stability for up to 12 months. Although factor VIII activity decreases over time, fibrinogen remains stable, and immunoproteins increase, supporting the clinical utility of stored plasma in EEHV-HD emergencies. These findings provide foundational guidance for establishing elephant plasma banking protocols, improving readiness for rapid intervention, and advancing One Health–aligned conservation strategies for endangered megafauna. Keywords: Asian elephant, coagulation factors, EEHV hemorrhagic disease, factor VIII activity, fibrinogen stability, fresh-frozen plasma, plasma banking protocols, wildlife transfusion medicine.

The increasing demand for elephant healthcare in Thailand underscores the need for efficient resource management in veterinary hospitals. Treating sick elephants requires substantial medical inputs, and without accurate workload forecasting, hospitals risk shortages in staff, equipment, and medications, potentially compromising care quality. This study evaluated six time-series forecasting models— Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average and its seasonal model (ARIMA/SARIMA), Exponential Smoothing (ETS), Trigonometric, Box-Cox ARMA Trend Seasonality (TBATS), Neural Network Time Series Regression (NNTR), Prophet, and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)—to predict monthly workloads at two major elephant hospitals: the National Elephant Institute (NEI) hospital in northern Thailand and the Department of Livestock Development (DLD) hospital in the northeast. Historical admission data spanning five years (NEI) and nine years (DLD) were analyzed. The ETS model achieved the highest accuracy at NEI, outperforming all other models by effectively capturing its stable and seasonal caseload patterns. In contrast, the NNTR model performed best at DLD, where it accommodated irregular fluctuations likely driven by external factors. Forecasts for 2025 suggested a consistent caseload at NEI (28–31 cases/month) and a declining trend at DLD, with the lowest projection in September. Although patient volume was low, each case demanded disproportionately high resources, justifying the need for anticipatory planning. This study provides the first demonstration that multi-model time-series forecasting can generate actionable insights using sparse, real-world data from wildlife hospitals. By embedding predictive analytics into routine operations, it offers a novel, scalable framework to support data-driven decision-making in endangered species care.

Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV) is a leading cause of fatal hemorrhagic disease in juvenile Asian elephants and represents a significant concern for elephant conservation. However, information on the epidemiology of EEHV in Bornean elephants (Elephas maximus borneensis) remains limited. This study investigated the prevalence and subtype distribution of EEHV in wild and captive Bornean elephants in Sabah, Malaysia, using samples collected during conservation management activities including rescue operations, translocation, GPS collaring, necropsies and routine veterinary examinations between 2009 and 2026. A total of 240 samples, comprising 100 whole-blood and 140 tissue samples from 110 elephants, were analyzed by conventional polymerase chain reaction (cPCR) targeting EEHV1 and EEHV4. EEHV DNA was detected in 6.4% (7/110) of elephants. Most positive cases were identified post-mortem, indicating a possible association of EEHV infection with mortality. EEHV1 was the only subtype detected, and sequence analysis showed close similarity to previously reported EEHV1A cases from Sabah. No EEHV4 was detected. Although no significant associations were observed between EEHV detection and population type, age group, sex, or sampling location, the detection of EEHV in both wild and captive elephants indicates that the virus is circulating in this endangered population. These findings provide baseline epidemiological data and support the need for continued surveillance and strengthened diagnostic capacity to inform EEHV management and conservation strategies in Sabah.