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The national targets of reaching carbon peak in 2030 and carbon neutrality in 2060 propose higher requirements for energy conservation and emission reduction of China’s automobile industry. As an important measure for the government, the fuel consumption and new energy vehicle (NEV) credit policy system has a significant impact on the Chinese and even the global vehicle market. Considering the lack of a systematic evaluation model for China’s fuel consumption and NEV credit regulations, this study establishes a hierarchical optimization decision-making model based on technology frontier curves and a multi-dimension database containing extensive data of technologies, products, and enterprises in the Chinese market to simulate and evaluate the technology compliance and policy impact under multiple regulations. The results show that, from the perspective of the technology frontier curve, gasoline technologies still have great cost-effectiveness advantages when the fuel-saving requirement is less than 46%, and the space for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and range-extended electric vehicles (REVs) is gradually shrinking due to the cost reduction of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). BEV400 will be better than PHEV70 and REV100 when the fuel-saving requirement is higher than 79%. Diesel vehicles are always not competitive in the passenger car market. In terms of the compliance of corporate average fuel consumption (CAFC) regulation, the start-stop technology will be gradually phased out and mild hybrid electric vehicles will be rapidly introduced due to their high cost-effectiveness in 2025. With the tightening of regulations, the penetration rate of BEVs and PHEVs will be 23.7% and 6.7%, respectively, and mild hybrid electric vehicles will be gradually replaced by strong hybrid electric vehicles in 2030. By 2035, the penetration rate of BEVs and PHEVs will be 43.6% and 6% further. For the CAFC and NEV credit regulation (widely known as the dual credit regulation), the single-vehicle credit poses a greater impact on the penetration of NEVs than corporate credit percentage limitation and is the key factor that should be focused on. The NEV credit limitation in the dual credit regulation could push ‘poor performance’ automakers to produce the required number of NEVs and meet the bottom line. However, in the long term, when compared to the CAFC regulation, the dual credit regulation is more lenient, due to NEVs being able to get double benefits both on NEV credit and CAFC credit, and NEV credit can also unidirectionally compensate CAFC credit under the dual-credit policy context. With the increased penetration and cost reduction of NEVs, the ‘averaging’ effect of dual credit regulation will inhibit the development of energy-saving and new energy vehicles. Therefore, eliminating the connection between NEV credit and CAFC credit or only leaving the CAFC and the fuel consumption limit regulations in the future will be better for the long-term development of the energy-saving and new energy vehicle industry.
Kangda Chen; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu; Xinglong Liu. Hierarchical Optimization Decision-Making Method to Comply with China’s Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle Credit Regulations. Sustainability 2021, 13, 7842 .
AMA StyleKangda Chen, Fuquan Zhao, Han Hao, Zongwei Liu, Xinglong Liu. Hierarchical Optimization Decision-Making Method to Comply with China’s Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle Credit Regulations. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (14):7842.
Chicago/Turabian StyleKangda Chen; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu; Xinglong Liu. 2021. "Hierarchical Optimization Decision-Making Method to Comply with China’s Fuel Consumption and New Energy Vehicle Credit Regulations." Sustainability 13, no. 14: 7842.
As a main measure to promote the development of China’s energy–saving and new energy vehicles, the Phase V fuel consumption regulation is dramatically different from the past four phases, especially in the test procedure, moving from the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) to the worldwide harmonized light duty test cycle (WLTC) and corresponding test procedure (WLTP). The switch of test procedure will not only affect the effectiveness of technologies but also change the fuel consumption target of the industry. However, few studies have systematically investigated the impacts of the new WLTP on the Chinese market. This study establishes a “technology–vehicle–fleet” bottom–up framework to estimate the impacts of test procedure switching on technology effectiveness and regulation stringency. The results show that due to the WLTP being closer to the real driving condition and more stringent, almost all baseline vehicles in the WLTP have higher fuel consumption than that in the NEDC, and diesel vehicles are slightly more impacted than gasoline vehicles. In addition, the impacts are increased with the strengthening of electrification, where the fuel consumption of plug–in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs) in the WLTP are about 6% higher than that in the NEDC. Engine technologies that gain higher effects in low load conditions, such as turbocharging and downsizing, fuel stratified injection (FSI), lean–burn, and variable valve timing (VVT), are faced with deterioration in the WLTP. Among these, the effect of turbocharging and downsizing shows a maximum decline of 8.5%. The variable compression ratio (VCR) and stoichiometric gasoline direct injection (SGDI) are among the few technologies that benefited from procedure switching, with an average improvement of 1.6% and 0.2% respectively. Except for multi–speed transmissions, which have improvement effects in the WLTP, all automatic transmissions are faced with decreases. From the perspective of the whole fleet and national regulation target, the average fuel consumption in the WLTP will increase by about 7.5% in 2025 compared to 4 L/100 km in the NEDC. According to the current planning of the Chinese government, the fuel consumption target of Phase V is set at 4.6 L/100 km in 2025, which is equivalent to loosening the stringency by 0.3 L/100 km. In Phase VI, the target of 3.2 L/100 km is maintained, which is 30.4% stricter than that of Phase V, and the annual compound tightening rate reaches 7.5%. This means that automakers need to launch their product planning as soon as possible and expand the technology bandwidth to comply with the Phase VI fuel consumption regulation, and the government should evaluate the technical feasibility before determining the evaluation methods and targets of the next phase.
Kangda Chen; Fuquan Zhao; Xinglong Liu; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. Impacts of the New Worldwide Light-Duty Test Procedure on Technology Effectiveness and China’s Passenger Vehicle Fuel Consumption Regulations. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18, 3199 .
AMA StyleKangda Chen, Fuquan Zhao, Xinglong Liu, Han Hao, Zongwei Liu. Impacts of the New Worldwide Light-Duty Test Procedure on Technology Effectiveness and China’s Passenger Vehicle Fuel Consumption Regulations. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18 (6):3199.
Chicago/Turabian StyleKangda Chen; Fuquan Zhao; Xinglong Liu; Han Hao; Zongwei Liu. 2021. "Impacts of the New Worldwide Light-Duty Test Procedure on Technology Effectiveness and China’s Passenger Vehicle Fuel Consumption Regulations." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 6: 3199.
Adhesive bonding techniques have been widely used and studied in automobile industry, enabling to join dissimilar materials, such as carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) composites and metals. However, durability of an adhesive joint is often a major concern in the severe service conditions of vehicle due to the nature of polymeric materials involved. This study aims to investigate the failure mechanisms of CFRP/Aluminum adhesive joints after certain hygrothermal degradation. In addition to mechanical strengths, the failure process and failure modes of the aged joints were studied herein. The results divulged that the strengths of adhesive joints decreased after hygrothermal degradation but had a noticeable increase after 40 days of aging. The failure process after 20 day aging was different from that without aging. In terms of variations in residual strengths and failure process, the failure modes exhibited three different types overall and two uncommon failure modes were identified. It is shown that the residual mechanical properties of adhesive material were a result of the combined effects of water plasticization and temperature post-curing. Its moisture absorption characteristics is found to be related to its residual mechanical properties. The study is anticipated to gain some insights into the hygrothermal effects on the residual properties of the CFRP/Al adhesive joint.
Gang Zheng; Zongkai He; Kai Wang; Xinglong Liu; Quantian Luo; Qing Li; Guangyong Sun. On failure mechanisms in CFRP/Al adhesive joints after hygrothermal aging degradation following by mechanical tests. Thin-Walled Structures 2020, 158, 107184 .
AMA StyleGang Zheng, Zongkai He, Kai Wang, Xinglong Liu, Quantian Luo, Qing Li, Guangyong Sun. On failure mechanisms in CFRP/Al adhesive joints after hygrothermal aging degradation following by mechanical tests. Thin-Walled Structures. 2020; 158 ():107184.
Chicago/Turabian StyleGang Zheng; Zongkai He; Kai Wang; Xinglong Liu; Quantian Luo; Qing Li; Guangyong Sun. 2020. "On failure mechanisms in CFRP/Al adhesive joints after hygrothermal aging degradation following by mechanical tests." Thin-Walled Structures 158, no. : 107184.
This study aims to investigate the fatigue degradation of carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) composite and aluminum (CFRP/Al) adhesively-bonded joints after certain levels of transverse pre-impact. The CFRP/Al adhesive joints were tested post impact under quasi-static loading and different levels of cyclic loading to study fatigue behaviors. Based upon the fatigue testing results and a two-parameter Weibull distribution method, the S-N curves were established at different reliabilities to provide fundamental data for engineering applications. The experimental results showed that the fatigue life of the CFRP/Al adhesively-bonded joints decreased with increase of pre-impact energy in general. The post impact fatigue load-bearing mechanisms of the joints could come from the harmful effect caused by the pre-impact damage and beneficial effect due to mechanical interlock induced by certain plastic deformation of aluminum adherend. The adhesive failure was identified to be the major failure mode regardless of the pre-impact energy and cyclic loading levels. Meanwhile, the fatigue life of the joints decreased with increase in the cyclic loading, and was more sensitive to a higher load as indicated from the S-N curves obtained.
Xinglong Liu; Gang Zheng; Quantian Luo; Qing Li; Guangyong Sun. Fatigue behavior of carbon fibre reinforced plastic and aluminum single-lap adhesive joints after the transverse pre-impact. International Journal of Fatigue 2020, 144, 105973 .
AMA StyleXinglong Liu, Gang Zheng, Quantian Luo, Qing Li, Guangyong Sun. Fatigue behavior of carbon fibre reinforced plastic and aluminum single-lap adhesive joints after the transverse pre-impact. International Journal of Fatigue. 2020; 144 ():105973.
Chicago/Turabian StyleXinglong Liu; Gang Zheng; Quantian Luo; Qing Li; Guangyong Sun. 2020. "Fatigue behavior of carbon fibre reinforced plastic and aluminum single-lap adhesive joints after the transverse pre-impact." International Journal of Fatigue 144, no. : 105973.
The switching from new European driving cycle (NEDC) to worldwide harmonized light vehicles test procedure (WLTP) will affect the energy consumption of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), and then affect the new energy vehicle (NEV) credit regulation and subsidy policy for PHEVs. This paper reveals the impact on energy consumption, NEV credit regulation, and subsidy policy for PHEV in the Chinese market of the switching from NEDC to WLTP based on qualitative analysis and quantitative calculation. The results show that the WLTP procedure is stricter than NEDC in the determination of road load, test mass, driving resistance forces, and tire selection. Firstly, the electricity consumption (EC) of PHEV in charge-depleting mode (CD) under the WLTP procedure is 26% higher than NEDC on average, which makes the all-electric range (AER) significantly lower under WLTP. The weight EC tested in the WLTP procedure is higher than NEDC. Secondly, the fuel consumption (FC) of PHEV in CD mode is related to the adjustment of the engine management system (EMS) and the size of battery energy under the WLTP procedure. For the FC in the charge-sustaining (CS) mode of PHEV under the WLTP procedure is 20% higher than NEDC on average. However, the weight fuel consumption of PHEVs under WLTP with a long AER may be lower than that of NEDC due to the characteristics of utility factor in the WLTP procedure. Thirdly, most PHEVs fail to meet the requirements of 50 km AER due to the switching of the test procedures. However, the Chinese government reduced the technical specification of PHEV’s AER under the WLTP procedure to 43 km to support the development of PHEV technology. It ensures that the switching of test procedures does not change the treatment that they could obtain, the NEV credits, and subsidy as a NEV in China. However, the increasing of the EC in CD mode and the FC in CS mode under the WLTP procedure makes the PHEV obtain lower credit and subsidy multiple compared with NEDC procedure.
Xinglong Liu; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Kangda Chen; Zongwei Liu; Hassan Babiker; Amer Amer. From NEDC to WLTP: Effect on the Energy Consumption, NEV Credits, and Subsidies Policies of PHEV in the Chinese Market. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5747 .
AMA StyleXinglong Liu, Fuquan Zhao, Han Hao, Kangda Chen, Zongwei Liu, Hassan Babiker, Amer Amer. From NEDC to WLTP: Effect on the Energy Consumption, NEV Credits, and Subsidies Policies of PHEV in the Chinese Market. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (14):5747.
Chicago/Turabian StyleXinglong Liu; Fuquan Zhao; Han Hao; Kangda Chen; Zongwei Liu; Hassan Babiker; Amer Amer. 2020. "From NEDC to WLTP: Effect on the Energy Consumption, NEV Credits, and Subsidies Policies of PHEV in the Chinese Market." Sustainability 12, no. 14: 5747.
With the rapid development of new energy vehicles (NEVs) industry in China, the reusing of retired power batteries is becoming increasingly urgent. In this paper, the critical issues for power batteries reusing in China are systematically studied. First, the strategic value of power batteries reusing, and the main modes of battery reusing are analyzed. Second, the economic benefit models of power batteries echelon utilization and recycling are constructed. Finally, the economic benefits of lithium iron phosphate (LIP) battery and ternary lithium (TL) battery under different reusing modes are analyzed based on the economic benefit models. The results show that when the industrial chain is fully coordinated, LIP battery echelon utilization is profitable based on a reasonable scenario scheme. However, the multi-level echelon utilization is only practical under an ideal scenario, and more attention should be paid to the first level echelon utilization. Besides, the performance matching of different types of batteries has a great impact on the echelon utilization income. Thus, considering the huge potentials of China’s energy storage market, the design of automobile power batteries in the future should give due consideration to the performance requirements of energy storage batteries. Moreover, the TL battery could only be recycled directly, while the LIP has the feasibility of echelon utilization at present. At the same time, it will strengthen the cost advantage of the LIP battery, which deserves special attention.
Zongwei Liu; Xinglong Liu; Han Hao; Fuquan Zhao; Amer Ahmad Amer; Hassan Babiker. Research on the Critical Issues for Power Battery Reusing of New Energy Vehicles in China. Energies 2020, 13, 1932 .
AMA StyleZongwei Liu, Xinglong Liu, Han Hao, Fuquan Zhao, Amer Ahmad Amer, Hassan Babiker. Research on the Critical Issues for Power Battery Reusing of New Energy Vehicles in China. Energies. 2020; 13 (8):1932.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZongwei Liu; Xinglong Liu; Han Hao; Fuquan Zhao; Amer Ahmad Amer; Hassan Babiker. 2020. "Research on the Critical Issues for Power Battery Reusing of New Energy Vehicles in China." Energies 13, no. 8: 1932.
Mechanical failure of zirconia-based full-arch implant-supported fixed dental prostheses (FAFDPs) remains a critical issue in prosthetic dentistry. The option of full-arch implant treatment and the biomechanical behaviour within a sophisticated screw-retained prosthetic structure have stimulated considerable interest in fundamental and clinical research. This study aimed to analyse the biomechanical responses of zirconia-based FAFDPs with different implant configurations (numbers and distributions), thereby predicting the possible failure sites and the optimum configuration from biomechanical aspect by using finite element method (FEM). Five 3D finite element (FE) models were constructed with patient-specific heterogeneous material properties of mandibular bone. The results were reported using volume-averaged von-Mises stresses (σVMVA) to eliminate numerical singularities. It was found that wider placement of multi-unit copings was preferred as it reduces the cantilever effect on denture. Within the limited areas of implant insertion, the adoption of angled multi-unit abutments allowed the insertion of oblique implants in the bone and wider distribution of the multi-unit copings in the prosthesis, leading to lower stress concentration on both mandibular bone and prosthetic components. Increasing the number of supporting implants in a FAFDPs reduced loading on each implant, although it may not necessarily reduce the stress concentration in the most posterior locations significantly. Overall, the 6-implant configuration was a preferable configuration as it provided the most balanced mechanical performance in this patient-specific case.
Jingxiao Zhong; Massimiliano Guazzato; Junning Chen; Zhongpu Zhang; Guangyong Sun; Xintao Huo; Xinglong Liu; Rohana Ahmad; Qing Li. Effect of different implant configurations on biomechanical behavior of full-arch implant-supported mandibular monolithic zirconia fixed prostheses. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 2020, 102, 103490 .
AMA StyleJingxiao Zhong, Massimiliano Guazzato, Junning Chen, Zhongpu Zhang, Guangyong Sun, Xintao Huo, Xinglong Liu, Rohana Ahmad, Qing Li. Effect of different implant configurations on biomechanical behavior of full-arch implant-supported mandibular monolithic zirconia fixed prostheses. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials. 2020; 102 ():103490.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJingxiao Zhong; Massimiliano Guazzato; Junning Chen; Zhongpu Zhang; Guangyong Sun; Xintao Huo; Xinglong Liu; Rohana Ahmad; Qing Li. 2020. "Effect of different implant configurations on biomechanical behavior of full-arch implant-supported mandibular monolithic zirconia fixed prostheses." Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials 102, no. : 103490.
The present study aimed to explore the effects of impact surface and impact energy on the residual characteristics of the carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP)/aluminum (Al) adhesive bonded joints. The adhesive specimens were manufactured in the hot pressing machine with specific curing temperature and curing pressure of the adhesive. In the experiments, a transverse low velocity pre-impact was carried out first and then followed by the axial (longitudinal) tensile test. The results divulged that CFRP, as an impact surface, could generate better structural integrity and decrease loss of joint strength in comparison with the aluminum impact surface. The mechanism for alternating residual tensile strength resulting from transverse impact load was the combined effect of both damage and mechanical interlocking effectiveness. The residual tensile strength and failure displacement decreased with increasing impact energy except for the joint strength impacted onto the aluminum surface at 10 J due to the prominent mechanical interlocking effect. The strain evolution paths in the adherends at the overlap region presented the different forms when impacted onto the different surfaces. In the tensile tests, the fracture surfaces for the joints with impacting on the aluminum surface can be classified as shear failure zone, annular failure zone and mixed failure zone, while the fracture surfaces for the joints with impacting onto the CFRP surface classified to be shear failure zone and crossed impact zone. This study is expected to provide systematic understanding on crashing behavior of adhesive joints with dissimilar materials for multiple impacts from different directions.
Xinglong Liu; Xuefei Shao; Qing Li; Guangyong Sun. Failure mechanisms in carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) / aluminum (Al) adhesive bonds subjected to low-velocity transverse pre-impact following by axial post-tension. Composites Part B: Engineering 2019, 172, 339 -351.
AMA StyleXinglong Liu, Xuefei Shao, Qing Li, Guangyong Sun. Failure mechanisms in carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) / aluminum (Al) adhesive bonds subjected to low-velocity transverse pre-impact following by axial post-tension. Composites Part B: Engineering. 2019; 172 ():339-351.
Chicago/Turabian StyleXinglong Liu; Xuefei Shao; Qing Li; Guangyong Sun. 2019. "Failure mechanisms in carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) / aluminum (Al) adhesive bonds subjected to low-velocity transverse pre-impact following by axial post-tension." Composites Part B: Engineering 172, no. : 339-351.
The adhesive joints connecting carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) composites with aluminum alloy (Al5182) could experience multiple impacts at different rates from different directions in service. However, there has been no study available in the open literature concerning the axial residual performances of the CFRP/Al5182 adhesive single-lap joints after low-velocity transverse impact. This study aimed to address this issue through the experiment. Based upon the testing results, the CFRP/Al5182 adhesive joints presented significant rate dependence; and the joints strength showed a rising tendency with increasing strain rate. Meanwhile, by analyzing the macroscopic and microcosmic fracture surfaces it was found that the failure modes for the adhesive joints gradually transformed from the cohesive failure and adhesive failure modes to the cohesive failure and fiber-tear failure modes with increasing strain rate. The joint strength and failure elongation both decreased with increasing transverse pre-impact energy; which were however independent of the axial tensile velocity. For the pre-impacted joints under a higher strain rate, the adhesive in the fracture surface mainly experiences the brittle failure and delamination of CFRP adherends. Finally, the results of two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the effect of axial strain rate and transverse pre-impact were the two main factors to affect the residual strength of joints, but the interaction was not strong. Based upon the failure mechanisms, a predicated empirical formula was derived to predict the joint strength after transverse pre-impact under different axial strain rates.
Xinglong Liu; Xuefei Shao; Qing Li; Guangyong Sun. Experimental study on residual properties of carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) and aluminum single-lap adhesive joints at different strain rates after transverse pre-impact. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 2019, 124, 105372 .
AMA StyleXinglong Liu, Xuefei Shao, Qing Li, Guangyong Sun. Experimental study on residual properties of carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) and aluminum single-lap adhesive joints at different strain rates after transverse pre-impact. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2019; 124 ():105372.
Chicago/Turabian StyleXinglong Liu; Xuefei Shao; Qing Li; Guangyong Sun. 2019. "Experimental study on residual properties of carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) and aluminum single-lap adhesive joints at different strain rates after transverse pre-impact." Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing 124, no. : 105372.
With expanding use of multi-materials in vehicle components for attaining light-weighting structures, growing interests have been refilled in the adhesive bonding technique attributable to its compelling advantages to bond dissimilar materials, especially for carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) composite and metals. A significant issue related to the bonding of dissimilar materials is, nevertheless, that there are substantial differences between adherend material properties, which often lead to different structural and fracture responses. This study aimed to investigate the effects of adherend thickness and adherend material types (e.g. steel, aluminum, CFRP composite) on the fracture behavior of the joints. The adherend deformation and fracture processes of the joints were monitored by the charge couple device (CCD) cameras during the tensile tests. A digital image correlation (DIC) technique was used to capture full-field, out-of-plane deformation of the adherend, the strain distribution and strain evolution along the bondline so that the fracture process can be characterized visually. The microscopic and macroscopic studies on the fracture surface were also carried out to explore the influences of adherend thickness and material types on the failure modes of the joints quantitatively. The results divulged that the joint strength increased with increasing adherend thickness; and the sensitivity of adherend thickness on the joint strength depended on the joint material types. When the adherends underwent the elastic deformation, adherend stiffness affected the joint stiffness and joint fracture process. Adherend yield strength determined the joint strength, fracture state and failure modes when the failure occurred with yielding in the adherend. The fracture processes and strain evolutions in the bondline were found to be symmetric for the joints with the same adherends, while the maximum strain and crack appeared first on the lap end of the lower yield strength adherend for the joints with dissimilar materials. The study is expected to provide new insights into the design of multi-material joints with different thicknesses.
Guangyong Sun; Xinglong Liu; Gang Zheng; Zhihui Gong; Qing Li. On fracture characteristics of adhesive joints with dissimilar materials – An experimental study using digital image correlation (DIC) technique. Composite Structures 2018, 201, 1056 -1075.
AMA StyleGuangyong Sun, Xinglong Liu, Gang Zheng, Zhihui Gong, Qing Li. On fracture characteristics of adhesive joints with dissimilar materials – An experimental study using digital image correlation (DIC) technique. Composite Structures. 2018; 201 ():1056-1075.
Chicago/Turabian StyleGuangyong Sun; Xinglong Liu; Gang Zheng; Zhihui Gong; Qing Li. 2018. "On fracture characteristics of adhesive joints with dissimilar materials – An experimental study using digital image correlation (DIC) technique." Composite Structures 201, no. : 1056-1075.