The emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) and leaching of nitrate (NO3) from agricultural cropping systems have considerable negative impacts on climate and the environment. Although these environmental burdens are less per unit area in organic than in non-organic production on average, they are roughly similar per unit of product. If organic farming is to maintain its goal of being environmentally friendly, these loadings must be addressed. We discuss the impact of possible drivers of N2O emissions and NO3 leaching within organic arable farming practice under European climatic conditions, and potential strategies to reduce these. Organic arable crop rotations are generally diverse with the frequent use of legumes, intercropping and organic fertilisers. The soil organic matter content and the share of active organic matter, soil structure, microbial and faunal activity are higher in such diverse rotations, and the yields are lower, than in non-organic arable cropping systems based on less diverse systems and inorganic fertilisers. Soil mineral nitrogen (SMN), N2O emissions and NO3 leaching are low under growing crops, but there is the potential for SMN accumulation and losses after crop termination, harvest or senescence. The risk of high N2O fluxes increases when large amounts of herbage or organic fertilisers with readily available nitrogen (N) and degradable carbon are incorporated into the soil or left on the surface. Freezing/thawing, drying/rewetting, compacted and/or wet soil and mechanical mixing of crop residues into the soil further enhance the risk of high N2O fluxes. N derived from soil organic matter (background emissions) does, however, seem to be the most important driver for N2O emission from organic arable crop rotations, and the correlation between yearly total N-input and N2O emissions is weak. Incorporation of N-rich plant residues or mechanical weeding followed by bare fallow conditions increases the risk of NO3 leaching. In contrast, strategic use of deep-rooted crops with long growing seasons or effective cover crops in the rotation reduces NO3 leaching risk. Enhanced recycling of herbage from green manures, crop residues and cover crops through biogas or composting may increase N efficiency and reduce N2O emissions and NO3 leaching. Mixtures of legumes (e.g. clover or vetch) and non-legumes (e.g. grasses or Brassica species) are as efficient cover crops for reducing NO3 leaching as monocultures of non-legume species. Continued regular use of cover crops has the potential to reduce NO3 leaching and enhance soil organic matter but may enhance N2O emissions. There is a need to optimise the use of crops and cover crops to enhance the synchrony of mineralisation with crop N uptake to enhance crop productivity, and this will concurrently reduce the long-term risks of NO3 leaching and N2O emissions.

Sustainable agricultural soil management practices are key to restore, maintain and improve soil health. The European Joint Programme for SOIL (EJP SOIL) has identified twelve main soil challenges in Europe. To assess the potential and eventually increase the adoption of soil‐improving management practices, it is necessary to know (i) the current levels of adoption of the practices, (ii) socio‐technical barriers influencing their adoption, and (iii) their bio‐physical limits. This study compiled an inventory of soil‐improving management practices relevant to European conditions, and used a survey among soil scientists to assess the levels of adoption of these practices in Europe. In total, 53 soil management practices were identified that address one or several of the soil challenges. The adoption of most practices was low or spatially heterogeneous across Europe, highlighting region‐specific limitations to sustainable soil management. Qualitative interviews were conducted to explore the importance of socio‐technical aspects of adoption. Using conservation agriculture as an example, factors that can hinder adoption included the availability of knowledge and adequate machinery, financial risks, and farming traditions. Through a modelling approach, 54% of arable land in Europe was found to be suitable for cover cropping, indicating that the adoption of soil management practices is frequently limited by climatic constraints. We propose a region‐specific approach that recognizes the importance of identifying and overcoming socio‐technical barriers, and by acknowledging bio‐physical limits that may be expanded by innovation.

The aim of this study was to examine the sustainability performance of organic and low-input conventional farms with the sustainability assessment tool—RISE 3.0. It is an indicator-based method for holistic assessment of sustainability of agricultural production at farm level. Ten organic and 10 conventional farms from eastern Poland, Lublin province were assessed. According to the thresholds levels of the RISE method, organic farms performed positively for 7 out of 10 themes, while the values of the other 3 topics, biodiversity, working conditions, and economic viability, were at medium level. Conventional farms reached positive scores for 9 out of 10 themes. The only middle-performing theme was biodiversity. None of the two farm types had the lowest, problematic scores for examined themes. For the theme biodiversity and two indicators (greenhouse gas balance and intensity of agricultural production), significant differences between farming systems were found. Biodiversity performance, an important indicator of sustainability, estimated with the RISE system, was highly correlated with measured on-field weed flora and Orthoptera biodiversity of farms. High soil acidity and low crop productivity, improper weed regulation, and energy management were the most common problems in both types of farms. Working hours and wage and income levels were also assessed as being low. Recommendations to improve the sustainability of both organic and conventional farms are presented.

In response to the growth in the global population and climate change concerns, questions remain regarding the adaptation of production systems to meet increasing food and energy demands. The aim of the paper is to present the production potential and biometric features of 11 willow varieties bred and cultivated mainly in Europe. The experiment was set up on marginal soil. The research was conducted in 2016–2020 and concerned 11 varieties of willow harvested in a three-year cycle. The dry matter yield of the examined willow varieties ranged from 6.5 to 13.8 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Varieties Tur, Sven, Olof, Torhild, and Tordis were characterized by a relatively low level of yield (7.2–8.2 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹). The highest dry matter yield was obtained for the varieties Ekotur and Żubr, respectively, of 11.5 and 13.8 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. The assessed varieties differed in both the level of obtained dry matter yield and biometric features. The Żubr variety produced the smallest number of shoots (three), but with the greatest height (4.8 m) and diameter (29.6 mm). Varieties with high production potential develop fewer shoots, but are taller and have a larger diameter than other varieties.

A growing interest in the cultivation of non-food crops on marginal lands has been observed in recent years in Poland. Marginal lands are a refuge of agroecosystems biodiversity. The impact of the cultivation of perennial industrial plants on the biodiversity of weeds and arthropods have been assessed in this study. The biodiversity monitoring study, carried out for three years, included five perennial crops: miscanthus Miscanthus × giganteus, cup plant Silphium perfoliatum, black locust Robinia pseudoacacia, poplar Populus × maximowiczii, and willow Salix viminalis. As a control area, uncultivated fallow land was chosen. The experiment was set up in eastern Poland. A decrease in plant diversity was found for miscanthus and black locust. The diversity of arthropods was the lowest for the cup plant. No decrease in the number of melliferous plants and pollinators was observed, except for the miscanthus. The biodiversity of plants and arthropods was affected by the intensity of mechanical treatments, the fertilization dose, and the use of herbicides. The biodiversity also decreased with the age of plantation.