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A horizontal electrohydrodynamic (EHD) liquid bridge (also known as a “floating water bridge”) is a phenomenon that forms when high voltage DC (kV·cm−1) is applied to pure water in two separate beakers. The bridge, a free-floating connection between the beakers, acts as a cylindrical lens and refracts light. Using an interferometric set-up with a line pattern placed in the background of the bridge, the light passing through is split into a horizontally and a vertically polarized component which are both projected into the image space in front of the bridge with a small vertical offset (shear). Apart from a 100 Hz waviness due to a resonance effect between the power supply and vortical structures at the onset of the bridge, spikes with an increased refractive index moving through the bridge were observed. These spikes can be explained by an electrically induced liquid–liquid phase transition in which the vibrational modes of the water molecules couple coherently.
Elmar Fuchs; Jakob Woisetschläger; Adam Wexler; Rene Pecnik; Giuseppe Vitiello. Electrically Induced Liquid–Liquid Phase Transition in a Floating Water Bridge Identified by Refractive Index Variations. Water 2021, 13, 602 .
AMA StyleElmar Fuchs, Jakob Woisetschläger, Adam Wexler, Rene Pecnik, Giuseppe Vitiello. Electrically Induced Liquid–Liquid Phase Transition in a Floating Water Bridge Identified by Refractive Index Variations. Water. 2021; 13 (5):602.
Chicago/Turabian StyleElmar Fuchs; Jakob Woisetschläger; Adam Wexler; Rene Pecnik; Giuseppe Vitiello. 2021. "Electrically Induced Liquid–Liquid Phase Transition in a Floating Water Bridge Identified by Refractive Index Variations." Water 13, no. 5: 602.
This work discusses nuclear magnetic relaxation effects in glycerol subject to a strong electric field. The methods used are 1.5 T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), referenced by 9.4 T nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). While MRI allows a glycerol probe to be sampled with a high voltage (HV) of 16 kV applied to the probe, NMR provides precise molecular data from the sample, but the sample cannot be tested under HV. Using MRI, the recording of magnetic relaxation times was possible while HV was applied to the glycerol. NMR spectroscopy was used to confirm that MRI provides a reasonably accurate estimation of temperature. The applied HV was observed to have a negligible effect on the spin–lattice relaxation time T1, which represents the energy release to the thermal bath or system enthalpy. In contrast to that, the spin–spin relaxation time T2, which does represent the local entropy of the system, shows a lower response to temperature while the liquid is electrically stressed. These observations point toward a proton population in electrically stressed glycerol that is more mobile than that found in the bulk, an observation that is in agreement with previously published results for water.
Adam D. Wexler; Jakob Woisetschläger; Ursula Reiter; Gert Reiter; Michael Fuchsjäger; Elmar C. Fuchs; Lothar Brecker. Nuclear Magnetic Relaxation Mapping of Spin Relaxation in Electrically Stressed Glycerol. ACS Omega 2020, 5, 22057 -22070.
AMA StyleAdam D. Wexler, Jakob Woisetschläger, Ursula Reiter, Gert Reiter, Michael Fuchsjäger, Elmar C. Fuchs, Lothar Brecker. Nuclear Magnetic Relaxation Mapping of Spin Relaxation in Electrically Stressed Glycerol. ACS Omega. 2020; 5 (35):22057-22070.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdam D. Wexler; Jakob Woisetschläger; Ursula Reiter; Gert Reiter; Michael Fuchsjäger; Elmar C. Fuchs; Lothar Brecker. 2020. "Nuclear Magnetic Relaxation Mapping of Spin Relaxation in Electrically Stressed Glycerol." ACS Omega 5, no. 35: 22057-22070.
In this work, we present a feasibility study of integrated optofluidic chips to measure the ionic content in water using differential absorption spectroscopy. The second overtone of the OH-stretch vibration of water is used as indicator for both the type and concentration of the dissolved ions. The optofluidic chips are based on silicon nitride (TripleX) containing Mach–Zehnder interferometers (MZI) with two 5 cm sensing paths for the sample and reference arms, respectively. Simulations show that, theoretically, the determination of both the type and concentration of a mixture of four electrolytes is possible with the techniques presented. However, the performance of the chips deviated from the expected results due to the insufficient reproducibility and precision in the fabrication process. Therefore, at this early stage, the chips presented here could only determine the ion concentration, but not differentiate between the different ion types. Still, this work represents the first steps towards the realization of an online and real-time sensor of ionic content in water.
Gerwin Steen; Adam Wexler; Elmar Fuchs; Herman Offerhaus. A First Step towards Determining the Ionic Content in Water with an Integrated Optofluidic Chip Based on Near-Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy. Optics 2020, 1, 175 -190.
AMA StyleGerwin Steen, Adam Wexler, Elmar Fuchs, Herman Offerhaus. A First Step towards Determining the Ionic Content in Water with an Integrated Optofluidic Chip Based on Near-Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy. Optics. 2020; 1 (2):175-190.
Chicago/Turabian StyleGerwin Steen; Adam Wexler; Elmar Fuchs; Herman Offerhaus. 2020. "A First Step towards Determining the Ionic Content in Water with an Integrated Optofluidic Chip Based on Near-Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy." Optics 1, no. 2: 175-190.
The authors wish to make the following corrections to this paper [1]: In all instances mentioning “2 kG·m−1”, these gradients should be replaced by “770 G·m−1 (WCM 62081992) and 740 G·m−1 (WCM 62083545)”: Abstract, page 1, line 4; Chapter 1
Martina Sammer; Cees Kamp; Astrid H. Paulitsch-Fuchs; Adam D. Wexler; Cees J. N. Buisman; Elmar C. Fuchs. Correction: Sammer, M., et al. Strong Gradients in Weak Magnetic Fields Induce DOLLOP Formation in Tap Water. Water 2016, 8, 79. Water 2020, 12, 1048 .
AMA StyleMartina Sammer, Cees Kamp, Astrid H. Paulitsch-Fuchs, Adam D. Wexler, Cees J. N. Buisman, Elmar C. Fuchs. Correction: Sammer, M., et al. Strong Gradients in Weak Magnetic Fields Induce DOLLOP Formation in Tap Water. Water 2016, 8, 79. Water. 2020; 12 (4):1048.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartina Sammer; Cees Kamp; Astrid H. Paulitsch-Fuchs; Adam D. Wexler; Cees J. N. Buisman; Elmar C. Fuchs. 2020. "Correction: Sammer, M., et al. Strong Gradients in Weak Magnetic Fields Induce DOLLOP Formation in Tap Water. Water 2016, 8, 79." Water 12, no. 4: 1048.
Introducing a hyperbolic vortex into a showerhead is a possibility to achieve higher spray velocities for a given discharge without reducing the nozzle diameter. Due to the introduction of air bubbles into the water by the vortex, the spray is pushed from a transition (dripping faucet) regime into a jetting regime, which results in higher droplet and jet velocities using the same nozzle diameter and throughput. The same droplet and jet diameters were realized compared to a showerhead without a vortex. Assuming that the satisfaction of a shower experience is largely dependent on the droplet size and velocity, the implementation of a vortex in the showerhead could provide the same shower experience with ~14% less water consumption compared to the normal showerhead. A full optical and physical analysis was presented, and the important chemical parameters were investigated.
Maarten V. Van De Griend; Luewton L. F. Agostinho; Elmar C. Fuchs; Nigel Dyer; Willibald Loiskandl. Consequences of the Integration of a Hyperbolic Funnel into a Showerhead for Droplets, Jet Break-Up Lengths, and Physical-Chemical Parameters. Water 2019, 11, 2446 .
AMA StyleMaarten V. Van De Griend, Luewton L. F. Agostinho, Elmar C. Fuchs, Nigel Dyer, Willibald Loiskandl. Consequences of the Integration of a Hyperbolic Funnel into a Showerhead for Droplets, Jet Break-Up Lengths, and Physical-Chemical Parameters. Water. 2019; 11 (12):2446.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMaarten V. Van De Griend; Luewton L. F. Agostinho; Elmar C. Fuchs; Nigel Dyer; Willibald Loiskandl. 2019. "Consequences of the Integration of a Hyperbolic Funnel into a Showerhead for Droplets, Jet Break-Up Lengths, and Physical-Chemical Parameters." Water 11, no. 12: 2446.
During four solar eclipse events (two annular, one total and one partial) a correlation was observed between a change in water surface tension and the magnitude of the optical coverage. During one eclipse, evaporation experiments were carried out which showed a reduction in water evaporation at the same time as a rise in the surface tension. The changes did not occur on a day without a solar eclipse and are not correlated to changes in temperature, pressure, humidity of the environment. The effects are delayed by 20, 85, 30 and 37 min, respectively, compared to the maximum eclipse. Possible mechanisms responsible for this effect are presented, the most likely hypothesis being reduced water/muon interaction due to solar wind and cosmic radiation blocking during an eclipse. As an alternative hypotheses, we propose a novel neutrino/water interaction and overview of other, less likely mechanisms.
Elmar C. Fuchs; Gerrit Oudakker; Martin Justinek; Nigel Dyer; Jakob Woisetschläger; Kevin Godines; Matthias Mäder; Friedemann T. Freund. Solar Eclipses and the Surface Properties of Water. The Moon and the Planets 2019, 123, 15 -43.
AMA StyleElmar C. Fuchs, Gerrit Oudakker, Martin Justinek, Nigel Dyer, Jakob Woisetschläger, Kevin Godines, Matthias Mäder, Friedemann T. Freund. Solar Eclipses and the Surface Properties of Water. The Moon and the Planets. 2019; 123 (1-2):15-43.
Chicago/Turabian StyleElmar C. Fuchs; Gerrit Oudakker; Martin Justinek; Nigel Dyer; Jakob Woisetschläger; Kevin Godines; Matthias Mäder; Friedemann T. Freund. 2019. "Solar Eclipses and the Surface Properties of Water." The Moon and the Planets 123, no. 1-2: 15-43.
An inhomogeneous electric field induces Raman active phonon conserved polarization currents in water potentiating coherent control of liquid–liquid phase transition.
Adam D. Wexler; Elmar C. Fuchs; Jakob Woisetschläger; Giuseppe Vitiello. Electrically induced liquid–liquid phase transition in water at room temperature. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 2019, 21, 18541 -18550.
AMA StyleAdam D. Wexler, Elmar C. Fuchs, Jakob Woisetschläger, Giuseppe Vitiello. Electrically induced liquid–liquid phase transition in water at room temperature. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 2019; 21 (34):18541-18550.
Chicago/Turabian StyleAdam D. Wexler; Elmar C. Fuchs; Jakob Woisetschläger; Giuseppe Vitiello. 2019. "Electrically induced liquid–liquid phase transition in water at room temperature." Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 21, no. 34: 18541-18550.
In a horizontal electrohydrodynamic bridge experiment protons are created at the anode due to high voltage electrolysis. The hydrated protons can be observed both optically using shadowgraph and Raman spectroscopy. If the system is taken out of its electrochemical equilibrium by a sudden disruption of the bridge, excess protons remain in the anolyte. These protons are observed via an enhancement of solvated protons and their accumulation at the liquid surface causing a residual electric field of several kV/m and reduce the surface tension by a few mN/m as they accumulate at and escape through the surface.
Elmar C. Fuchs; Doekle Yntema; Jakob Woisetschläger; Jakob Woisetschlaeger. Raman spectroscopy and shadowgraph visualization of excess protons in high-voltage electrolysis of pure water. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 2019, 52, 365302 .
AMA StyleElmar C. Fuchs, Doekle Yntema, Jakob Woisetschläger, Jakob Woisetschlaeger. Raman spectroscopy and shadowgraph visualization of excess protons in high-voltage electrolysis of pure water. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 2019; 52 (36):365302.
Chicago/Turabian StyleElmar C. Fuchs; Doekle Yntema; Jakob Woisetschläger; Jakob Woisetschlaeger. 2019. "Raman spectroscopy and shadowgraph visualization of excess protons in high-voltage electrolysis of pure water." Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 52, no. 36: 365302.
This work is focused on the role of temperature in the de-mixing of absorbance spectra measured in mixed aqueous Na2SO4 and NaNO3 solutions. First, the influence of temperature on the absorbance spectrum of demineralized water was determined. Second, the absorbance spectra of five separate electrolytes (NaNO2, NaNO3, CaCl2, K2CO3, and NaOH) at three temperatures (4°C, 25°C, and 50°C) for concentrations ranging from 0.0625 M to 0.5 M were examined. These five electrolytes show similar temperature dependencies. Finally, absorbance spectra of mixed solutions were investigated at temperatures of 5°C, 15°C, 25°C, 35°C, and 45°C for concentrations ranging from 0.0625 M to 0.5 M per electrolyte in the mixture. The spectral window from 650 to 1100 nm was utilized to observe the ionic and temperature influences on the vibrational modes of the OH bond in the solvent molecules. The effects of dissolving Na2SO4 and NaNO3 are nonlinearly cumulative at lower temperatures indicating extended alteration of the water structure beyond the first hydration shell. A similar trend was observed for a mixture of Na2CO3 and NaCl. Furthermore, it was found that higher temperatures are better for recovering the separate component absorption signatures of an electrolyte mixture. The near-infrared spectral regime is well suited for integrated sensing, and therefore these results can help in designing an integrated sensor to identify inorganic species in water.
G. W. Steen; A. D. Wexler; E. C. Fuchs; H. A. Bakker; P. D. Nguyen; H. L. Offerhaus. Role of temperature in de-mixing absorbance spectra composed of compound electrolyte solutions. Applied Optics 2018, 57, 7871 -7877.
AMA StyleG. W. Steen, A. D. Wexler, E. C. Fuchs, H. A. Bakker, P. D. Nguyen, H. L. Offerhaus. Role of temperature in de-mixing absorbance spectra composed of compound electrolyte solutions. Applied Optics. 2018; 57 (27):7871-7877.
Chicago/Turabian StyleG. W. Steen; A. D. Wexler; E. C. Fuchs; H. A. Bakker; P. D. Nguyen; H. L. Offerhaus. 2018. "Role of temperature in de-mixing absorbance spectra composed of compound electrolyte solutions." Applied Optics 57, no. 27: 7871-7877.
In 2012 Coey proposed a theory on the mechanism of magnetic water treatment based on the gradient of the applied field rather than its absolute strength. We tested this theory by measuring the effect of very weak field magnets (≤ 10 G) containing strong magnetic inhomogeneities (ΔB = 770 G·m−1 (WCM 62081992) and 740 G·m−1 (WCM 62083545)) on tap water samples by the use of electric impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and laser scattering. Our results show an increased formation of nm-sized prenucleation clusters (dynamically ordered liquid like oxyanion polymers or “DOLLOPs”) due to the exposure to the magnetic field and thus are consistent with Coey’s theory which is therefore also applicable to very weak magnetic fields as long as they contain strong gradients.
Martina Sammer; Cees Kamp; Astrid H. Paulitsch-Fuchs; Adam D. Wexler; Cees J. N. Buisman; Elmar C. Fuchs. Strong Gradients in Weak Magnetic Fields Induce DOLLOP Formation in Tap Water. Water 2016, 8, 79 .
AMA StyleMartina Sammer, Cees Kamp, Astrid H. Paulitsch-Fuchs, Adam D. Wexler, Cees J. N. Buisman, Elmar C. Fuchs. Strong Gradients in Weak Magnetic Fields Induce DOLLOP Formation in Tap Water. Water. 2016; 8 (3):79.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartina Sammer; Cees Kamp; Astrid H. Paulitsch-Fuchs; Adam D. Wexler; Cees J. N. Buisman; Elmar C. Fuchs. 2016. "Strong Gradients in Weak Magnetic Fields Induce DOLLOP Formation in Tap Water." Water 8, no. 3: 79.
Excess positive and negative Bjerrum-defect like charge (protonic and 'aterprotonic', from ancient Greek ἄ'τερ, 'without') in anolyte and catholyte of high voltage electrolysis of highly pure water was found during the so-called 'floating water bridge' experiment. The floating water bridge is a special case of an electrohydrodynamic liquid bridge and constitutes an intriguing phenomenon that occurs when a high potential difference (~kV cm−1) is applied between two beakers of water. To obtain such results impedance spectroscopy was used. This measurement technique allows the depiction and simulation of complex aqueous systems as simple electric circuits. In the present work we show that there is an additional small contribution from the difference in conductivity between anolyte and catholyte which cannot be measured with a conductivity meter, but is clearly visible in an impedance spectrum.
Elmar C Fuchs; Martina Sammer; Adam D. Wexler; Philipp Kunkte; Jakob Woisetschlaeger. A floating water bridge produces water with excess charge. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 2016, 49, 125502 .
AMA StyleElmar C Fuchs, Martina Sammer, Adam D. Wexler, Philipp Kunkte, Jakob Woisetschlaeger. A floating water bridge produces water with excess charge. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 2016; 49 (12):125502.
Chicago/Turabian StyleElmar C Fuchs; Martina Sammer; Adam D. Wexler; Philipp Kunkte; Jakob Woisetschlaeger. 2016. "A floating water bridge produces water with excess charge." Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 49, no. 12: 125502.
We have measured the quasi-elastic neutron scattering (QENS) of an electrohydrodynamic liquid bridge formed between two beakers of pure water when a high voltage is applied, a setup allowing to investigate water under high-voltage without high currents. From this experiment two proton populations were distinguished: one consisting of protons strongly bound to oxygen atoms (immobile population, elastic component) and a second one of quasi-free protons (mobile population, inelastic component) both detected by QENS. The diffusion coefficient of the quasi-free protons was found to be D = (26 ± 10) × 10–5 cm2 s–1 with a jump length lav ∼ 3 Å and an average residence time of τ0 = 0.55 ± 0.08 ps. The associated proton mobility in the proton channel of the bridge is ∼9.34 × 10–7 m2 V–1 s–1, twice as fast as diffusion-based proton mobility in bulk water. It also matches the so-called electrohydrodynamic or “apparent” charge mobility, an experimental quantity which so far has lacked molecular interpretation. These results further corroborate the proton channel model for liquid water under high voltage and give new insights into the molecular mechanisms behind electrohydrodynamic charge transport phenomena and delocalization of protons in liquid water.
Elmar C. Fuchs; Brigitte Bitschnau; Adam D. Wexler; Jakob Woisetschläger; Friedemann T. Freund. A Quasi-Elastic Neutron Scattering Study of the Dynamics of Electrically Constrained Water. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2015, 119, 15892 -15900.
AMA StyleElmar C. Fuchs, Brigitte Bitschnau, Adam D. Wexler, Jakob Woisetschläger, Friedemann T. Freund. A Quasi-Elastic Neutron Scattering Study of the Dynamics of Electrically Constrained Water. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2015; 119 (52):15892-15900.
Chicago/Turabian StyleElmar C. Fuchs; Brigitte Bitschnau; Adam D. Wexler; Jakob Woisetschläger; Friedemann T. Freund. 2015. "A Quasi-Elastic Neutron Scattering Study of the Dynamics of Electrically Constrained Water." The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 119, no. 52: 15892-15900.
This work reports on proton production, transport, reduction and neutralization in floating aqueous bridges under the application of a high dc voltage ('floating water bridge'). Recently possible mechanisms for proton transfer through the bridge were suggested. In this work we visualize and describe the production of protons in the anolyte and their neutralization in the catholyte. Apart from that, protons are reduced to hydrogen due to electrolysis. Microbubbles are detached instantly, due to the electrohydrodynamic flow at the electrode surface. No larger, visible bubbles are formed and the system degasses through the bridge due to its higher local temperature. A detailed analysis of trace elements originating from beaker material, anode or the atmosphere is presented, showing that their influence on the overall conduction compared to the contribution of protons is negligible. Finally, an electrochemical rationale of high voltage electrolysis of low ionic strength solutions is presented.
Martina Sammer; Adam D. Wexler; Philipp Kuntke; Helmar Wiltsche; Natalia Stanulewicz; Ernst Lankmayr; Jakob Woisetschlaeger; Elmar C Fuchs. Proton production, neutralisation and reduction in a floating water bridge. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 2015, 48, 415501 .
AMA StyleMartina Sammer, Adam D. Wexler, Philipp Kuntke, Helmar Wiltsche, Natalia Stanulewicz, Ernst Lankmayr, Jakob Woisetschlaeger, Elmar C Fuchs. Proton production, neutralisation and reduction in a floating water bridge. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 2015; 48 (41):415501.
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartina Sammer; Adam D. Wexler; Philipp Kuntke; Helmar Wiltsche; Natalia Stanulewicz; Ernst Lankmayr; Jakob Woisetschlaeger; Elmar C Fuchs. 2015. "Proton production, neutralisation and reduction in a floating water bridge." Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 48, no. 41: 415501.
A novel device called the Bioscope System is investigated for feasibility as sensor for chemicals in aqueous solutions. Thereby a sample is examined by a pulsed voltage and electrical properties of that sample are measured. These electrical properties can be considered as a sum parameter of the sample in terms of conductivity and permittivity. It is demonstrated that the Bioscope System can indeed measure differences between different substances in aqueous solution and between different concentrations of the same substance in aqueous solution. A qualitative explanation is provided. Possible improvements of the system are suggested.
M. Sammer; C. Kamp; D. Yntema; M. Hörner; E. C. Fuchs; G. Holler; J. Woisetschläger; E. Lankmayr. The bioscope system—testing and validating a novel sensor for aqueous solutions. Journal of Water Chemistry and Technology 2011, 33, 369 -376.
AMA StyleM. Sammer, C. Kamp, D. Yntema, M. Hörner, E. C. Fuchs, G. Holler, J. Woisetschläger, E. Lankmayr. The bioscope system—testing and validating a novel sensor for aqueous solutions. Journal of Water Chemistry and Technology. 2011; 33 (6):369-376.
Chicago/Turabian StyleM. Sammer; C. Kamp; D. Yntema; M. Hörner; E. C. Fuchs; G. Holler; J. Woisetschläger; E. Lankmayr. 2011. "The bioscope system—testing and validating a novel sensor for aqueous solutions." Journal of Water Chemistry and Technology 33, no. 6: 369-376.
When a high-voltage direct-current is applied to two beakers filled with polar liquid dielectrica like water or methanol, a horizontal bridge forms between the two beakers. By repeating a version of Pellat’s experiment, it is shown that a horizontal bridge is stable by the action of electrohydrodynamic pressure. Thus, the static and dynamic properties of the phenomenon called a ‘floating water bridge’ can be explained by the gradient of Maxwell pressure, replenishing the liquid within the bridge against any drainage mechanism. It is also shown that a number of liquids can form stable and long horizontal bridges. The stability of such a connection, and the asymmetry in mass flow through such bridges caused by the formation of ion clouds in the vicinity of the electrodes, is also discussed by two further experiments.
Jakob Woisetschläger; Adam D. Wexler; Gert Holler; Mathias Eisenhut; Karl Gatterer; Elmar C. Fuchs. Horizontal bridges in polar dielectric liquids. Experiments in Fluids 2011, 52, 193 -205.
AMA StyleJakob Woisetschläger, Adam D. Wexler, Gert Holler, Mathias Eisenhut, Karl Gatterer, Elmar C. Fuchs. Horizontal bridges in polar dielectric liquids. Experiments in Fluids. 2011; 52 (1):193-205.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJakob Woisetschläger; Adam D. Wexler; Gert Holler; Mathias Eisenhut; Karl Gatterer; Elmar C. Fuchs. 2011. "Horizontal bridges in polar dielectric liquids." Experiments in Fluids 52, no. 1: 193-205.
In 1893 Sir William Armstrong placed a cotton thread between two wine glasses filled with chemically pure water. After applying a high voltage, a watery connection formed, and after some time, the cotton thread was pulled into one of the glasses, leaving a rope of water suspended between the two glasses. Although being a very simple experiment, it is of special interest since it comprises a number of phenomena currently tackled in modern water science like electrolysis-less charge transport and nanobubbles. This work gives some background information about water research in general and describes the water bridge phenomenon from the viewpoint of different fields such as electrohydrodynamics and quantum field theory. It is shown that the investigation of the floating water bridge led to new discoveries about water, both in the macroscopic and microscopic realm – but these were merely “hidden” in that sense that they only become evident upon application of electric fields.
Elmar C. Fuchs. Can a Century Old Experiment Reveal Hidden Properties of Water? Water 2010, 2, 381 -410.
AMA StyleElmar C. Fuchs. Can a Century Old Experiment Reveal Hidden Properties of Water? Water. 2010; 2 (3):381-410.
Chicago/Turabian StyleElmar C. Fuchs. 2010. "Can a Century Old Experiment Reveal Hidden Properties of Water?" Water 2, no. 3: 381-410.
In a high-voltage direct-current experiment, a watery connection formed between two beakers filled with deionized water, giving the impression of a ‘floating water bridge’. Having a few millimeters diameter and up to 2.5 cm length, this watery connection reveals a number of interesting phenomena currently discussed in water science. Focusing on optical measurement techniques, the flow through the bridge was visualized and data were recorded such as flow velocity and directions, heat production, density fluctuations, pH values, drag force and mass transfer. To provide a better understanding of the basic phenomena involved the discussion references related literature.
Jakob Woisetschläger; Karl Gatterer; Elmar C. Fuchs; Jakob Woisetschlaeger. Experiments in a floating water bridge. Experiments in Fluids 2009, 48, 121 -131.
AMA StyleJakob Woisetschläger, Karl Gatterer, Elmar C. Fuchs, Jakob Woisetschlaeger. Experiments in a floating water bridge. Experiments in Fluids. 2009; 48 (1):121-131.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJakob Woisetschläger; Karl Gatterer; Elmar C. Fuchs; Jakob Woisetschlaeger. 2009. "Experiments in a floating water bridge." Experiments in Fluids 48, no. 1: 121-131.
Polycrystalline sub-micron-sized GdAl3(BO3)4 phosphors co-doped with Eu3+, Tb3+, Dy3+ and Tm3+ have been prepared by combustion synthesis with urea. The phosphors have been characterised by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, excitation and emission spectroscopy. The chromaticity co-ordinates and the colour temperatures of the fluorescence of the materials presented have been calculated and analysed with Commission Internationale l’Eclairage (CIE) programs and diagrams. Depending on the excitation wavelength, different colour temperatures of the light emitted can be achieved. Due to its polyspectral nature, the emitted light reveals a high colour rendering index.
E.C. Fuchs; C. Sommer; F.P. Wenzl; B. Bitschnau; A.H. Paulitsch; A. Mühlanger; K. Gatterer. Polyspectral white light emission from Eu3+, Tb3+, Dy3+, Tm3+ co-doped GdAl3(BO3)4 phosphors obtained by combustion synthesis. Materials Science and Engineering: B 2009, 156, 73 -78.
AMA StyleE.C. Fuchs, C. Sommer, F.P. Wenzl, B. Bitschnau, A.H. Paulitsch, A. Mühlanger, K. Gatterer. Polyspectral white light emission from Eu3+, Tb3+, Dy3+, Tm3+ co-doped GdAl3(BO3)4 phosphors obtained by combustion synthesis. Materials Science and Engineering: B. 2009; 156 (1-3):73-78.
Chicago/Turabian StyleE.C. Fuchs; C. Sommer; F.P. Wenzl; B. Bitschnau; A.H. Paulitsch; A. Mühlanger; K. Gatterer. 2009. "Polyspectral white light emission from Eu3+, Tb3+, Dy3+, Tm3+ co-doped GdAl3(BO3)4 phosphors obtained by combustion synthesis." Materials Science and Engineering: B 156, no. 1-3: 73-78.