Rice-based food production is crucial for food security, socio-political stability, and economic development in Bangladesh. However, climate and environmental changes pose serious challenges to sustainable rice production in the country. This review paper critically reviews the status, challenges, and adaptation opportunities of Bangladeshi rice systems in changing environmental, demographic, and socio-economic settings. A mixed-methods approach (quantitative summary of secondary data on rice production, environmental changes, impact on rice productivity; and qualitative thematic synthesis) was used to review adaptation for resilient rice production. Significant agronomic and environmental challenges to rice-based cropping in Bangladesh are posed by rising temperatures, anomalous rainfall patterns, extreme weather, and increasing salinisation. Rice production, availability, and access have been further compromised by decreasing arable areas, labour shortages, crop diversification, and low profitability. Farmers are adapting through autonomous and centrally planned strategies such as efficient irrigation and input use, stress-tolerant cultivars, mechanisation, and income diversification. However, profitable and sustainable adaptation requires broader facilitation by the government (e.g., infrastructure, financial incentives) and agribusiness (e.g., extension services, contracting). This review paper recommends research and development support for efficient irrigation management and stress-tolerant cultivars, enabling policy initiatives, and equitable value chain participation. The insights of the review can be applied to policymakers to target policy design and decision-making for a sustainable rice system in years to come.

The review examines the literature concerning the effects on soil profile development of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and termites (Isoptera), two prominent insect groups in the Australian environment. Their pedological influence is largely through the construction of nests, galleries, soil sheetings and mounds. Some of the pedological effects are manifested in the physical modification of the soil profile through selecting, transporting and rearranging soil particles. Within this group, findings in areas such as soil turnover, mound longevity, bioturbation, soil structure and water infiltration are discussed. Termites contribute actively to soil turnover, and the contribution of termite sheetings and ant mounds to soil turnover is also being recognized. Termite mounds may persist in the landscape for more than two decades, while ant mound longevity varies from weeks to decades. Information on the effects of ants and termites on soil structure and water infiltration is sparse; but ants and termites seem to either increase infiltration by improving soil structure and porosity, or to decrease infiltration by producing compact surfaces which assist runoff and erosion. Other effects involve the chemical alteration of the soil profile by ants and termites collecting and transporting live and dead animal and plant materials to their nest structures, and by the additions of secretions and excreta in nest construction. The majority of ants and termites probably increase carbon and nutrient levels, especially nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, as well as exchangeable magnesium and calcium. The extent of the increases depends greatly on the type of mound construction and the degree to which organic material is incorporated. Problems with research techniques include the use of a variety of sampling techniques by different researchers, lack of detailed soil description or classification, and inadequate description of location of sampling points. These deficiencies make it difficult to draw valid comparisons between research projects. Many researchers also base their generalizations on ant or termite soil modifications on a small number of samples, although during the 1980s there has been an increase in sample sizes. Contradictory data often result from projects being undertaken on different species and in different environments. Future research directions need to include a greater concentration on the morphology of ant nests, more detailed assessment of the influence of ants and termites on soil structure and water infiltration, an increase in biopedological research in human-modified environments, a greater emphasis on termites and ants other than the most dominant or prominent species, and a focus on community as distinct from single-species effects.

More units of study are being offered flexibly, using distance education and online facilities, as a consequence of recent educational developments in higher education, with learner expectations of being able to study when they like and where they like, as well as increasing class enrolments and more students studying remotely or part‐time. However, the quality of the learning experience and the efficacy of placing learning activities that require student interaction and discourse in an online environment have been questioned. The concerns raised by educators regarding placing learning activities online are often about the types of learning environments that are being created and the tools available to support student communication in a virtual learning environment. Asynchronous computer‐mediated communication is one means of allowing students to communicate independently of time and place, and to communicate questions, opinions and queries when transferring interactive learning activities to an online environment. The use of threaded, online discussions that allow asynchronous communication has been criticised for not producing the perceived benefits for learners and educators. This paper assesses the use of asynchronous computer‐mediated communication and the degree of convergence and level of social presence as indicators of developing highly responsive and interactive learning environments in the context of an inquiry‐based learning activity, using a case study approach with problem solving and self‐directed research.

The effect of ant activity on bioturbation rates was assessed in the central wheatbelt of Western Australia in naturally vegetated and farmland sites, by bimonthly measurements of soil fauna activity and periodic measurements of ant nest dimensions. The percentage soil surface affected by soil fauna (%SSASF) was on average 0.5%, with the lowest activity in cropped areas and the highest %SSASF recorded in pasture sites (>2%). Overall %SSASF was greater on yellow sand in comparison with grey sandy loam. The estimated bioturbation rates of ant communities in naturally vegetated and farmland habitats on both soils ranged from 10 to 37 g m-2 yr-1. On average, the amount of soil excavated by ants to build a nest was 20 to 25 g. Aphaenogaster sp. D49 was identified as a significant contributor to soil turnover based on the frequency of excavation, nest density and mass of soil removed to build the nest (134 g). Aphaenogaster sp. D49 brought to the soil surface 465 g m-2 yr-1 on grey sandy loam and 223 g m-2 yr-1 on yellow sand. The activity period for the majority of ant nests was around 3 months, but some species such as Rhytidoponera spp. and Meranoplus spp. had nests active for up to 2 years. While other ant species such as Iridomyrmex sp. D13 have a high turnover of nests (<3 months). There was no clear seasonal trend in the number of active nest openings, although they appeared to be greatest in May, and lowest in January. Ant nest density was higher in yellow sand than in grey sandy loam, regardless of land use. Particle size distribution of ant spoils (soil brought to the surface during nest construction) and ant-affected soil at 26 cm was compared to the control soil at comparable depths, and found to be similar. Three instances where the ant spoil had a higher proportion of clay-sized particles in comparison with the control soil, and this was attributed to ants excavating into the clay subsoil or being size-selective in the material they excavated. The control soil had a texture-contrast between 2 and 26 cm, while all the ant nests examined had similiar texture between these two depths. This supports the hypothesis that ant activity homogenizes the soil texture profile.