Biorefineries are novel, productive models that are aimed at producing biobased alternatives to many fossil-based products. Biomass supply and overall energy consumptions are important issues determining the overall biorefinery sustainability. Low-profit lands appear to be a potential option for the sustainable production of raw materials without competition with the food chain. Cardoon particularly matches these characteristics, thanks to the rapid growth and the economy of the cultivation and harvesting steps. An integrated biorefinery processing 60 kton/y cardoon lignocellulosic biomass for the production of 1,4-butanediol (bio-BDO) is presented and discussed in this work. After designing the biorefinery flowsheet, the mass and energy balances were calculated. The results indicated that the energy recovery system has been designed to almost completely cover the entire energy requirement of the BDO production process. Despite the lower supply of electricity, the energy recovery system can cover around 78% of the total electricity demand. Instead, the thermal energy recovery system was able to satisfy the overall demand of the sugar production process entirely, while BDO purification columns require high-pressure steam. The thermal energy recovery system can cover around 83% of the total thermal demand. Finally, a cradle-to-gate simplified environmental assessment was conducted in order to evaluate the environmental impact of the process in terms of carbon footprint. The carbon footprint value calculated for the entire production process of BDO was 2.82 kg_CO2eq/kg_BDO. The cultivation phase accounted for 1.94 kg_CO2eq/kg_BDO, the transport had very little impact, only for 0.067 kg_CO2eq/kg_BDO, while the biorefinery phase contributes for 0.813 kg_CO2eq/kg_BDO.

Lignocellulosic biomass is currently widely used in many biorefining processes. The full exploitation of biomass from uncultivated or even marginal lands for the production of biobased chemicals has deserved huge attention in the last few years. Among the sustainable biomass-based value chains, cardoon crops could be a feedstock for biorefineries as they can grow on marginal lands and be used as raw material for multipurpose exploitation, including seeds, roots, and epigeous lignocellulosic solid residue. This work focused on the technical analysis of a novel integrated flowsheet for the exploitation of the lignocellulosic fraction through the assessment of thermochemical, biochemical, and extractive technologies and processes. In particular, high-yield thermochemical processes (gasification), innovative biotechnological processes (syngas fermentation to ethanol), and extractive/catalyzed processes for the valorization of cardoon roots to FDCA and residual solid biomass were modeled and simulated. Inulin conversion to 2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid was the main conversion route taken into consideration. Finally, the novel process flowsheet, treating 130,000 t/y of residual biomass and integrating all proposed technologies, was modeled and assessed using process simulation tools to achieve overall mass and energy balances for comparison with alternative options. The results indicated that cardoon biorefining through the proposed flowsheet can produce, per 1000 tons of input dry biomass, 211 kg of 2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid and 140 kg of ethanol through biomass gasification followed by syngas fermentation. Furthermore, a pre-feasibility analysis was conducted, revealing significant and potentially disruptive results in terms of environmental impact (with 40 kt_CO2eq saved) and economic feasibility (with an annual gross profit of EUR 30 M/y).

Lignin valorization represents a key opportunity for advancing sustainable and circular bio-based economies, yet its techno-economic feasibility remains uncertain due to feedstock variability and limited process standardization. This study aims to critically assess the current state of lignin valorization by analyzing process modelling, simulation-based techno-economic studies, and evaluating the market of major lignin-derived products. Data from the literature were used to estimate process yields, energy requirements, and economic indicators such as net present value and payback selling price across multiple conversion pathways. The analysis shows that economic performance strongly depends on both lignin type and targeted product. High-value, low-volume products such as vanillin and phenolic compounds emerge as the most economically promising despite relatively low yields, while bulk chemicals and fuels, including BTX aromatics, remain less competitive under current technological conditions. Lignin-based carbon fibers and resins exhibit significant potential in advanced materials applications, although their large-scale deployment is still constrained by high production costs and intermediate technology readiness levels. Overall, the results highlight that improved feedstock standardization, process integration, and data reliability are essential to enhance comparability and scalability. A more targeted alignment between lignin types and applications, supported by coordinated research and policy frameworks, is necessary to accelerate the transition toward commercially viable lignin-based value chains.

This study assesses the long-term potential of European biorefineries toward 2050 by combining georeferenced bioresource data, regulatory eligibility, and technological performance across the EU-27. It links spatially explicit biomass availability with RED-compliant biofuel pathways, distinguishing between options that can be deployed immediately and those with greater long-term scaling potential. The results indicate that maritime biofuel production is strongly shaped by regional resource endowment. Used cooking oil supports only limited production of FAME and HEFA, with modest outputs concentrated in a few highly urbanized or industrialized areas. In contrast, lignocellulosic and wet biomass pathways offer much larger and more geographically distributed potentials. Methanol from gasification and synthesis, liquefied biomethane, liquefied biohydrogen, and microbial-oil-based routes emerge as the most scalable options, supported by regions rich in agricultural residues, forestry resources, municipal organic waste, and manure. Quantitatively, methanol shows the highest standalone potential, reaching about 19.17 Mtoe/y. Liquefied biomethane and liquefied biohydrogen can reach about 23.74 Mtoe/y and 21.37 Mtoe/y, respectively. By comparison, FAME and HEFA reach 18.57 Mtoe/y and 17.92 Mtoe/y, although only about 0.99 Mtoe/y and 0.96 Mtoe/y come directly from used cooking oil. The most promising hotspots are located in Spain, France, Germany, Poland, Romania, northern Italy, northern Finland, and parts of eastern Europe. Overall, the findings show that Europe’s maritime biofuel supply will depend on a strong match between regional feedstock availability, conversion pathway, and regulatory suitability, making a portfolio-based strategy essential.