Currently, there is an increasing interest in nanotechnology, since some nanomaterials can enhance crop growth, yield, nutritional status, and antioxidant defences. This work aimed to investigate for the first time the influence of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) on the in vitro growth and biochemical parameters of the olive tree (cv. Moraiolo). With this goal, biogenic ZnO-NPs (spherical shape and dimensions in the range of 10–20 nm), deriving from a green synthesis carried out with a Lemna minor L. extract were used. Different concentrations (0, 2, 6 and 18 mg L⁻¹) of ZnO-NPs were added to the olive growth medium (OM substrate), and three sub-cultures of 45 days each were carried out. ZnO-NPs at 6 and 18 mg L⁻¹ enhanced some growth parameters in the olive tree explants, such as the number of shoots, green fresh and total dry weight. Moreover, the abovementioned concentrations raised the chlorophyll a and b content and soluble protein. Finally, concerning the dosage applied, the treatments stimulated the content of carotenoids, anthocyanins, total phenol content (TPC), and the radical scavenging activity towards DPPH (2.2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl). In conclusion, this study highlighted that biogenic ZnO-NPs exerted beneficial effects on the olive tree explants in vitro, improving the effectiveness of the micropropagation technique.

Encapsulated vitro -derived apical buds of M.26 apple rootstock (Malus pumila Mill) can be employed for the formation of the synthetic seed. Satisfactory levels of conversion (plantlets from synthetic seed) can be achieved if there are adequate (i) rooting induction treatment, (ii) protocol of encapsulation, and (iii) nutritive and environmental conditions. For capsule manufacturing, sodium alginate is largely used; however, this is excessively permeable with loss of the nutritive substances (artificial endosperm) and/or dehydration risks during conservation and transport causing detrimental effects on the synthetic seed conversion and on the plantlet's growth. In order to overcome these problems, two experiments were carried out comparing simple encapsulation in alginate with double encapsulation, and with encapsulation-coating procedures. The presence of a second layer of alginate (double encapsulation) and of a thin external coating layer over the alginate (encapsulation-coating) did not show any detrimental effects on viability, sprouting and regrowth of the encapsulated microcuttings. Satisfactory conversion (70%) was reached with the encapsulation-coating procedure, whereas the double and simple encapsulation converted less than 40% of the synthetic seed. The effect of the addition to the capsule of an anti-microbial substance (Plant Preservative Mixture - PPM#174;) was examined: it did not compromise the conversion of the encapsulated microcuttings sown in ex-vitro non-aseptic conditions.