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Previous studies have reported differences between men and women in the adoption of preventive behaviors against infectious diseases. This study aims to examine gender differences on a set of psychosocial factors shown to influence preventive behaviors against infectious diseases such as COVID-19. We conducted a web survey (N = 1.004) a few weeks after the end of the peak of the first wave of infections in Chile. The survey assessed participants’ perception of risk and worry about the COVID-19 pandemic, confidence in the government’s competence and integrity in dealing with the crisis, attribution of responsibility to various stakeholders, and adoption of preventive behaviors such as hygiene, distancing, and information-seeking. Our results confirm significant gender-based differences for both the psychosocial factors and the adoption of preventive behaviors. We conclude that women show a higher level of worry and fear of the pandemic and are keener to adopt preventive hygiene and social distancing behaviors. Similarly, participants report a low level of trust in government authorities, with women reporting the lowest trust level. The implications of these findings for the design of future risk communication strategies are discussed.
Nicolás Bronfman; Paula Repetto; Paola Cordón; Javiera Castañeda; Pamela Cisternas. Gender Differences on Psychosocial Factors Affecting COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors. Sustainability 2021, 13, 6148 .
AMA StyleNicolás Bronfman, Paula Repetto, Paola Cordón, Javiera Castañeda, Pamela Cisternas. Gender Differences on Psychosocial Factors Affecting COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (11):6148.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás Bronfman; Paula Repetto; Paola Cordón; Javiera Castañeda; Pamela Cisternas. 2021. "Gender Differences on Psychosocial Factors Affecting COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors." Sustainability 13, no. 11: 6148.
The COVID-19 pandemic forced people worldwide to implement a series of preventive hygiene and distancing measures that have significantly altered their way of life. This study examined an adapted version of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) on adopting preventive behavior against COVID-19. Data was collected using a web survey completed by 1004 college students a few weeks after the first wave of infections in Chile. Our findings show that the subjective norm was the strongest predictor of adopting preventive behaviors, followed by the knowledge level and perceived behavioral control. Contrary to expectations, we found no evidence that an attitude towards preventive action predicted actual adoption of preventive behavior against COVID-19. However, knowledge and social norms play a significant role. We discuss implications for effective risk communication.
Nicolás Bronfman; Paula Repetto; Pamela Cisternas; Javiera Castañeda. Factors Influencing the Adoption of COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors in Chile. Sustainability 2021, 13, 5331 .
AMA StyleNicolás Bronfman, Paula Repetto, Pamela Cisternas, Javiera Castañeda. Factors Influencing the Adoption of COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors in Chile. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (10):5331.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás Bronfman; Paula Repetto; Pamela Cisternas; Javiera Castañeda. 2021. "Factors Influencing the Adoption of COVID-19 Preventive Behaviors in Chile." Sustainability 13, no. 10: 5331.
One of the main challenges for studying social vulnerability to natural hazards is to capture their dynamic nature. In this study, we explore the spatial and temporal variations in social vulnerability in Chile for the last two decades. Using data reported in the previous three censuses, we have characterized social vulnerability using the Social Vulnerability Index (SoVI) for 2,464 districts throughout the country for 1992, 2002, and 2017. We examined spatial variations in social vulnerability through global and local spatial autocorrelation analyses. Our results reveal that social vulnerability in Chile are distributed heterogeneously throughout the territory as a result of the spatial and temporal interaction of different factors that reflect the social and economic contrasts of its communities. In addition, factors that explain higher or lower levels of social vulnerability in one period may persist or reduce its influence over time. Therefore, territories were highly vulnerable at one time to become less so at another. Finally, factors such as disability and immigration emerge as significant elements of social vulnerability at the end of the period under study. We discuss the implications of our findings for those institutions responsible for the development and implementation of disaster risk reduction plans, programs, and policies.
Nicolás C. Bronfman; Paula B. Repetto; Nikole Guerrero; Javiera V. Castañeda; Pamela C. Cisternas. Temporal evolution in social vulnerability to natural hazards in Chile. Natural Hazards 2021, 1 -28.
AMA StyleNicolás C. Bronfman, Paula B. Repetto, Nikole Guerrero, Javiera V. Castañeda, Pamela C. Cisternas. Temporal evolution in social vulnerability to natural hazards in Chile. Natural Hazards. 2021; ():1-28.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás C. Bronfman; Paula B. Repetto; Nikole Guerrero; Javiera V. Castañeda; Pamela C. Cisternas. 2021. "Temporal evolution in social vulnerability to natural hazards in Chile." Natural Hazards , no. : 1-28.
Risk perception has been largely examined in studies that have aimed to explain and predict preparedness behavior in the context of natural hazards. Findings from studies on the relationship between previous experience, preparedness, and risk perception in disaster situations have been inconsistent. Hence, the main goal of this work was to explore the influence of physical and emotional experience on risk perception regarding natural hazards. This study was conducted in a statistically representative sample of the city of Iquique, in northern Chile (n = 701), who completed a survey one month after the occurrence of an earthquake and tsunami (8.2 Mw). The survey assessed the experience and preparation actions of survivors in relation to this event. Using a structural equation model, we examined nine proposed relationships, six of which were significant. The final model had an adequate fit (χ ² = 752.23, df = 283, comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.90, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.049). Direct experience showed the greatest influence on risk perception: while direct physical experience (i.e., the physical and material consequences associated with the earthquake) maintained a direct positive effect on risk perception, direct emotional experience (i.e., the fear of experiencing an earthquake) produced an indirect positive effect (through worry). Emotional experience , however, did not directly influence current preparedness and risk perception. Implications for understanding the relationship between risk perception and direct experience are discussed.
Nicolás C. Bronfman; Pamela C. Cisternas; Paula B. Repetto; Javiera V. Castañeda; Eliana Guic. Understanding the Relationship Between Direct Experience and Risk Perception of Natural Hazards. Risk Analysis 2020, 40, 2057 -2070.
AMA StyleNicolás C. Bronfman, Pamela C. Cisternas, Paula B. Repetto, Javiera V. Castañeda, Eliana Guic. Understanding the Relationship Between Direct Experience and Risk Perception of Natural Hazards. Risk Analysis. 2020; 40 (10):2057-2070.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás C. Bronfman; Pamela C. Cisternas; Paula B. Repetto; Javiera V. Castañeda; Eliana Guic. 2020. "Understanding the Relationship Between Direct Experience and Risk Perception of Natural Hazards." Risk Analysis 40, no. 10: 2057-2070.
The growing multi-hazard environment to which millions of people in the world are exposed highlights the importance of making sure that populations are increasingly better prepared. The objective of this study was to report the levels of preparedness of a community exposed to two natural hazards and identify the primary sociodemographic characteristics of groups with different preparedness levels. A survey was conducted on 476 participants from two localities of the Atacama Region in the north of Chile during the spring of 2015. Their level of preparedness at home and work was assessed to face two types of natural hazards: earthquakes and floods.The findings show that participants are significantly better prepared to face earthquakes than floods, which sends a serious warning to local authorities, given that floods have caused the greatest human and material losses in the region's recent history of natural disasters. Men claimed to be more prepared than women to face floods, something that the authors attribute to the particular characteristics of the main employment sectors for men and women in the region. The potential contribution of large companies on preparedness levels of communities in the areas in which they operate is discussed. The sociodemographic profile of individuals with the highest levels of preparedness in an environment with multiple natural hazards are people between 30 and 59 years of age, living with their partner and school-age children. The implications of the results pertaining to institutions responsible for developing disaster risk reduction plans, policies and programs in a multi-hazard environment are discussed.
Nicolás C. Bronfman; Pamela C. Cisternas; Paula B. Repetto; Javiera V. Castañeda. Natural disaster preparedness in a multi-hazard environment: Characterizing the sociodemographic profile of those better (worse) prepared. PLOS ONE 2019, 14, e0214249 .
AMA StyleNicolás C. Bronfman, Pamela C. Cisternas, Paula B. Repetto, Javiera V. Castañeda. Natural disaster preparedness in a multi-hazard environment: Characterizing the sociodemographic profile of those better (worse) prepared. PLOS ONE. 2019; 14 (4):e0214249.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás C. Bronfman; Pamela C. Cisternas; Paula B. Repetto; Javiera V. Castañeda. 2019. "Natural disaster preparedness in a multi-hazard environment: Characterizing the sociodemographic profile of those better (worse) prepared." PLOS ONE 14, no. 4: e0214249.
The way in which societies have evolved has resulted in serious deterioration of the current state of the environment. If we want to stop it, it is essential to understand the variables that influence people’s pro-environmental behaviours. In this chapter we describe the results of a study that characterized the pro-environmental behaviour of the citizens of Santiago, the capital of Chile, through the implementation of the Value-Belief-Norm model developed by Stern et al. (Hum Ecol Rev 6:81–98, 1999). Six dimensions of pro-environmental behaviour were evaluated: energy conservation, water conservation, consumption, biodiversity, waste and transport. The results suggest that the population has an ecological vision for the environment, being aware of the current environmental problems and recognising the responsibility that falls on the government, enterprises and households regarding the protection of the environment. Implications for enhancing pro-environmental behaviour are discussed.
Nicolás C. Bronfman; Pamela C. Cisternas; Esperanza López-Vázquez. A Study on the Environmental Behaviour of Chilean Citizens. Carbon Management, Technologies, and Trends in Mediterranean Ecosystems 2018, 223 -235.
AMA StyleNicolás C. Bronfman, Pamela C. Cisternas, Esperanza López-Vázquez. A Study on the Environmental Behaviour of Chilean Citizens. Carbon Management, Technologies, and Trends in Mediterranean Ecosystems. 2018; ():223-235.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás C. Bronfman; Pamela C. Cisternas; Esperanza López-Vázquez. 2018. "A Study on the Environmental Behaviour of Chilean Citizens." Carbon Management, Technologies, and Trends in Mediterranean Ecosystems , no. : 223-235.
Researchers have previously reported that hazard proximity can influence risk perception among individuals exposed to potential hazards. Understanding this relationship among coastline communities at risk of flood events caused by storms and/or tsunamis, is important because hazard proximity, should be recognized when planning and implementing preparation and mitigation actions against these events. Yet, we are not aware of studies that have examined this relationship among coastline inhabitants facing the risk of a tsunami. Consequently, the aim of this study was to examine the relationship between hazard proximity and perceived risk from tsunamis among coastline inhabitants. Participants were 487 residents of the coastal city of Iquique, Chile. They completed a survey during the spring of 2013 that assessed their perceived risk from several natural and non-natural hazards. We found that hazard proximity maintains a negative relationship with the perception of tsunami risk among coastline inhabitants. While this result confirms the general trend obtained in previous studies, this one is conclusive and significant. In contradiction with previous findings, we found that participants from the highest socioeconomic status reported the highest levels of risk perception. This finding can be explained by the fact that most participants from the highest socioeconomic status live closer to the coastline areas, so their risk perception reflects the place where they live, that is in a tsunami inundation zone. Once again, hazard proximity proved to be a determinant factor of risk perception. Our findings have important implications for the development of plans and programs for tsunami preparedness and mitigation. These indicate that individuals do use environmental cues to evaluate their own risk and can potentially make correct choices when having or not to evacuate. Also suggest that preparedness should incorporate how hazard proximity is recognized by individuals and communities at risk.
Juan Pablo Arias; Nicolás C. Bronfman; Pamela Carmen Cisternas; Paula B. Repetto. Hazard proximity and risk perception of tsunamis in coastal cities: Are people able to identify their risk? PLOS ONE 2017, 12, e0186455 .
AMA StyleJuan Pablo Arias, Nicolás C. Bronfman, Pamela Carmen Cisternas, Paula B. Repetto. Hazard proximity and risk perception of tsunamis in coastal cities: Are people able to identify their risk? PLOS ONE. 2017; 12 (10):e0186455.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJuan Pablo Arias; Nicolás C. Bronfman; Pamela Carmen Cisternas; Paula B. Repetto. 2017. "Hazard proximity and risk perception of tsunamis in coastal cities: Are people able to identify their risk?" PLOS ONE 12, no. 10: e0186455.
Environmental protection and restoration are some of the major challenges faced by our society. To address this problem, it is fundamental to understand pro-environmental behaviors in the population, as well as the factors that determine them. There are, however, very few studies conducted in Latin America that are focused in understanding the environmental behavior of its citizens. The main goal of this research was to study the environmental behaviors of a Chilean community and identify the factors that determine them. To that end, a diverse set of environmental behaviors (power and water conservation, environmentally-aware consumer behavior, biodiversity protection, rational automobile use and ecological waste management) and sociodemographic and attitudinal factors—based on the VBN model—were evaluated. Survey data was obtained from a statistically representative sample (N = 1537) in Santiago, Chile. Our results suggest that several participants displayed tendencies that favor more responsible environmental behaviors, with high environmental concern, and demonstrating their ample awareness of the consequences of failing to protect the environment. Nevertheless, the highest average scores of environmental behavior were related to low cost behaviors and those that imposed the fewest behavioral restrictions. In global terms, we concluded that the youngest subjects in the lowest socioeconomic group obtained the lowest scores across the pro-environmental behavior spectrum.
Nicolás C. Bronfman; Pamela Carmen Cisternas; Esperanza López-Vázquez; Cristóbal De La Maza; Juan Carlos Oyanedel. Understanding Attitudes and Pro-Environmental Behaviors in a Chilean Community. Sustainability 2015, 7, 14133 -14152.
AMA StyleNicolás C. Bronfman, Pamela Carmen Cisternas, Esperanza López-Vázquez, Cristóbal De La Maza, Juan Carlos Oyanedel. Understanding Attitudes and Pro-Environmental Behaviors in a Chilean Community. Sustainability. 2015; 7 (10):14133-14152.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás C. Bronfman; Pamela Carmen Cisternas; Esperanza López-Vázquez; Cristóbal De La Maza; Juan Carlos Oyanedel. 2015. "Understanding Attitudes and Pro-Environmental Behaviors in a Chilean Community." Sustainability 7, no. 10: 14133-14152.
This work advances the understanding of compensation demanded for environmental impacts on atmosphere, lakes and rivers, soil, and ocean generated by mining, urban, fishing and agriculture activities. Our aims are to determine whether compensation demanded depends on the standard variables used in the field of risk perception (as perceived risk, public acceptability and trust in regulating authorities), and to explore whether these relationships depend on the environment affected and on the economic activity generating the impacts. General Linear Models were used to analyze survey responses from 427 citizens of Santiago, Chile. Results showed that compensation demanded depends on perceived risk, acceptability, and on the economic activity, but not on the environment affected. Acceptability depends on trust in authorities, on perceived risk and on the economic activity. Perceived risk depends on trust, the economic activity and the environment affected. Overall, environmental impacts from the mining industry are perceived as riskier, less acceptable, and have a higher compensation demanded than those generated by the other sectors. These results suggest that to achieve sustainable development, regulations should consider not only environmental impacts but also the economic activity originating them.
Virna Vaneza Gutiérrez; Luis Abdón Cifuentes; Nicolás C. Bronfman. Factors Influencing Compensation Demanded for Environmental Impacts Generated by Different Economic Activities. Sustainability 2015, 7, 9608 -9627.
AMA StyleVirna Vaneza Gutiérrez, Luis Abdón Cifuentes, Nicolás C. Bronfman. Factors Influencing Compensation Demanded for Environmental Impacts Generated by Different Economic Activities. Sustainability. 2015; 7 (7):9608-9627.
Chicago/Turabian StyleVirna Vaneza Gutiérrez; Luis Abdón Cifuentes; Nicolás C. Bronfman. 2015. "Factors Influencing Compensation Demanded for Environmental Impacts Generated by Different Economic Activities." Sustainability 7, no. 7: 9608-9627.
The aim of this study was to characterize the influence that different dimensions of public trust in regulatory institutions have on social acceptability judgments of electricity generation sources in Chile. Chilean university students' acceptability judgments of ten energy sources were characterized using a web-based survey, covering risk and benefit perceptions, declared levels of acceptability, and trust in regulatory institutions. Our results confirm the influence of public trust in regulatory institutions on general perceptions and acceptance of electricity generation sources, and corroborate the presence of two dimensions of trust in regulatory institutions: integrity-based trust and competence-based trust. Our results revealed a significant influence of both aspects on risk and benefit perceptions and acceptance of fossil fuels, biomass and nuclear power, while for NRES no significant relationships were found. For hydropower, integrity-based trust was the only form of trust that influenced perceptions of risks and benefits, and its influence over public acceptance was significantly larger than competence-based trust. Further analyses of results for each energy source and implications for regulators are discussed.
Nicolas C. Bronfman; Raquel B. Jiménez; Pilar C. Arevalo; Luis A. Cifuentes. Public Acceptance of Electricity Generation Sources: The Role of Trust in Regulatory Institutions. Energy & Environment 2015, 26, 349 -368.
AMA StyleNicolas C. Bronfman, Raquel B. Jiménez, Pilar C. Arevalo, Luis A. Cifuentes. Public Acceptance of Electricity Generation Sources: The Role of Trust in Regulatory Institutions. Energy & Environment. 2015; 26 (3):349-368.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolas C. Bronfman; Raquel B. Jiménez; Pilar C. Arevalo; Luis A. Cifuentes. 2015. "Public Acceptance of Electricity Generation Sources: The Role of Trust in Regulatory Institutions." Energy & Environment 26, no. 3: 349-368.
Several recent studies have identified the significant role social trust in regulatory organizations plays in the public acceptance of various technologies and activities. In a cross‐cultural investigation, the current work explores empirically the relationship between social trust in management authorities and the degree of public acceptability of hazards for individuals residing in either developed or emerging Latin American economies using confirmatory rather than exploratory techniques. Undergraduates in Mexico, Brazil, and Chile and the United States and Spain assessed trust in regulatory authorities, public acceptance, personal knowledge, and the risks and benefits for 23 activities and technological hazards. Four findings were encountered. (i) In Latin American nations trust in regulatory entities was strongly and significantly (directly as well as indirectly) linked with the public's acceptance of any activity or technology. In developed countries trust and acceptability are essentially linked indirectly (through perceived risk and perceived benefit). (ii) Lack of knowledge strengthened the magnitude and statistical significance of the trust‐acceptability relationship in both developed and developing countries. (iii) For high levels of claimed knowledge, the impact on the trust‐acceptability relationship varied depending upon the origin of the sample. (iv) Confirmatory analysis revealed the relative importance of perceived benefit over perceived risk in meditating the trust‐acceptability causal chain.
Nicolás C. Bronfman; Esperanza López Vázquez. A Cross-Cultural Study of Perceived Benefit Versus Risk as Mediators in the Trust-Acceptance Relationship. Risk Analysis 2011, 31, 1919 -1934.
AMA StyleNicolás C. Bronfman, Esperanza López Vázquez. A Cross-Cultural Study of Perceived Benefit Versus Risk as Mediators in the Trust-Acceptance Relationship. Risk Analysis. 2011; 31 (12):1919-1934.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás C. Bronfman; Esperanza López Vázquez. 2011. "A Cross-Cultural Study of Perceived Benefit Versus Risk as Mediators in the Trust-Acceptance Relationship." Risk Analysis 31, no. 12: 1919-1934.
Typical psychometric paradigm factors appear to have greater explanatory power for individual participants than previously envisaged. It is possible to acquire interpretable information about single participants using two factors (catastrophic potential and social and personal exposure) from aggregated participant‐focused data. Our results suggest that the classical psychometric model originated by Fischhoff and Slovic in the early 1980s to explain differences among hazards may also be capable of accounting for differences among participants. While socio‐demographic conditions on their own do not have substantial explanatory power, they are statistically significant and appear to dictate the position of participants within the factor space obtained using a participant‐focused analysis. One of the principal criticisms of the psychometric paradigm has been its lack of interpretability when using disaggregated data, but incorporating socio‐demographic variables overcomes this limitation.
Nicolás C. Bronfman; Luis Abdón Cifuentes; Virna Vaneza Gutiérrez. Participant‐focused analysis: explanatory power of the classic psychometric paradigm in risk perception. Journal of Risk Research 2008, 11, 735 -753.
AMA StyleNicolás C. Bronfman, Luis Abdón Cifuentes, Virna Vaneza Gutiérrez. Participant‐focused analysis: explanatory power of the classic psychometric paradigm in risk perception. Journal of Risk Research. 2008; 11 (6):735-753.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás C. Bronfman; Luis Abdón Cifuentes; Virna Vaneza Gutiérrez. 2008. "Participant‐focused analysis: explanatory power of the classic psychometric paradigm in risk perception." Journal of Risk Research 11, no. 6: 735-753.
Studies over the past decade have found empirical links between trust in risk management institutions and the risk perceptions and acceptability of various individual hazards. Mostly addressing food technologies, no study to date has explored wider possible relationships among all four core variables (risk, benefit, trust and acceptability) covering a heterogeneous group of hazards. Our prime objective was to ascertain effects among social trust in regulatory entities, and the public's perceived risk, perceived benefit and the degree of acceptability towards both technological and environmental hazards. We also assess whether trust in regulatory authorities is the cause (causal model) or a consequence (associationist model) of a hazard's acceptability for a wide and heterogeneous range of hazards on all four core variables. Using a web‐based survey, 539 undergraduates in Chile rated the five variables across 30 hazards. Implications for technology and environmental risk management organizations are discussed. Independent of the magnitude of the perceived risk or benefit surrounding a given hazard, or how knowledgeable the public claim to be of it, the trust sustained in regulatory institutions will either generate or be the consequence of public attitudes towards the hazard.
Nicolás C. Bronfman; Esperanza López Vázquez; Virna Vaneza Gutiérrez; Luis Abdón Cifuentes. Trust, acceptance and knowledge of technological and environmental hazards in Chile. Journal of Risk Research 2008, 11, 755 -773.
AMA StyleNicolás C. Bronfman, Esperanza López Vázquez, Virna Vaneza Gutiérrez, Luis Abdón Cifuentes. Trust, acceptance and knowledge of technological and environmental hazards in Chile. Journal of Risk Research. 2008; 11 (6):755-773.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás C. Bronfman; Esperanza López Vázquez; Virna Vaneza Gutiérrez; Luis Abdón Cifuentes. 2008. "Trust, acceptance and knowledge of technological and environmental hazards in Chile." Journal of Risk Research 11, no. 6: 755-773.
Most psychometric studies of risk perception have used data that have been averaged over participants prior to analysis. Such aggregation obscures variation among participants and inflates the magnitude of relationships between psychometric dimensions and dependent variables such as overall riskiness. However, most studies that have not averaged data over participants have also shifted the focus of analysis from differences among hazards to differences among participants. Hence, it is unclear whether observed reductions in the explanatory power of psychometric dimensions result from the change in the level of analysis or from the change in the focus of analysis. Following Willis et al.'s (2005 Willis, H. H., DeKay, M. L., Fischhoff, B. and Morgan, M. G. 2005. Aggregate, disaggregate, and hybrid analyses of ecological risk perceptions. Risk Analysis, 25(2): 405–428. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]) analysis of ecological risk perceptions, we unconfound these two variables in a study of risk perceptions in Santiago, Chile, although we use more traditional hazards, attributes, and statistical procedures. Results confirm that psychometric dimensions explain less variation in judgments of riskiness and acceptability at the disaggregate level than at the aggregate level. However, they also explain less variation when the focus of analysis is differences among participants rather than differences among hazards. These two effects appear to be similar in magnitude. A simple hybrid analysis economically represents variation among participants' judgments of hazards' riskiness by relating those judgments to a common set of psychometric dimensions from a traditional aggregate‐level analysis.
Nicolás C. Bronfman; Luis Abdón Cifuentes; Michael L. DeKay; Henry Willis. Accounting for Variation in the Explanatory Power of the Psychometric Paradigm: The Effects of Aggregation and Focus. Journal of Risk Research 2007, 10, 527 -554.
AMA StyleNicolás C. Bronfman, Luis Abdón Cifuentes, Michael L. DeKay, Henry Willis. Accounting for Variation in the Explanatory Power of the Psychometric Paradigm: The Effects of Aggregation and Focus. Journal of Risk Research. 2007; 10 (4):527-554.
Chicago/Turabian StyleNicolás C. Bronfman; Luis Abdón Cifuentes; Michael L. DeKay; Henry Willis. 2007. "Accounting for Variation in the Explanatory Power of the Psychometric Paradigm: The Effects of Aggregation and Focus." Journal of Risk Research 10, no. 4: 527-554.