Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) contribute to local people’s livelihood in many regions around the world. This article investigates the types of NTFPs collected, processed, and traded in the Arasbaran region of Iran, the roles of these products in household economies, and the potential contribution to rural household economies through the collection, processing, and marketing of NTFPs. Data were collected using household and community surveys as well as through secondary sources on the role of NTFPs within Arasbaran forests in Iran. The main NTFPs harvested by local people were fruits. The fruits from 14 woody species, including trees and shrubs, were harvested by local people. The average share of forest-harvested fruit to household income was 27 percent. The mean annual income derived from the harvest and sale of sumac and reddish blackberry in the sample rural household incomes was USD 1822 and USD 142, respectively. In regard to processing efficiency, plum, cornelian cherry, and sumac exhibited the highest processing efficiency. Better policy support would be needed along the whole value chain, starting with the forest management plans, to include fruit species. In addition, measures to support processing facilities as well as to promote trade and marketing beyond the local area would be highly important to develop the potential of forest fruits and other NTFPs. Besides technical and financial support, measures should include regulatory revisions as well as information, training, and awareness raising.

This study examined the spatial variability of throughfall (T_f) and its implications for sampling throughfall during the leafless period of oak trees. To do this, we measured T_f under five single Brant’s oak trees (Quercus brantii var. Persica), in the Zagros region of Iran, spanning a six-month-long study period. Overall, the T_f amounted to 85.7% of gross rainfall. The spatial coefficient of variation (CV) for rainstorm total T_f volumes was 25%, on average, and it decreased as the magnitude of rainfall increased. During the leafless period, T_f was spatially autocorrelated over distances of 1 to 3.5 m, indicating the benefits of sampling with relatively elongated troughs. Our findings highlight the great variability of T_f under the canopies of Brant’s oaks during their leafless period. We may also conclude that the 29 T_f collectors used in the present study were sufficient to robustly estimate tree-scale T_f values within a 10% error of the mean at the 95% confidence level. Given that a ±10% uncertainty in T_f is associated with a ±100% uncertainty in interception loss, this underscores the challenges in its measurement at the individual tree level in the leafless season. These results are valuable for determining the number and placement of T_f collectors, and their expected level of confidence, when measuring tree-level T_f of scattered oak trees and those in forest stands.

Proper understanding of the diversity and natural structure of woody species and the impacts of human interventions are prerequisites for maintaining the remaining forests as well as restoration of deforested and degraded areas. This research was conducted to document the impact of human interventions on the population structure and the species diversity in the Arasbaran biosphere reserve in Iran due to the limited research and insufficient knowledge. The study area was divided into three adjacent sampling areas of low, medium, and high destruction intensity. Thirty fixed area 0.1-hectare plots were sampled to evaluate the composition, diversity, and species richness. Oak (Quercus macranthera), hawthorn (Crataegus meyeri), and maple (Acer campestre) were the top three dominant tree species at all the sites. The relative dominance of the top three species comprised 87.8% of the basal area of all species. The relative abundance of the top three species accounted for 68.1% of the species. The mean density and basal areas per tree across all three destruction statuses were 145 ± 59 stems ha⁻¹ and 0.01 ± 0.005 m² ha⁻¹, respectively. The mean height of trees was different at low and high disturbance sites (4.6 ± 0.96 m and 3.37 ± 1.74 m, respectively). Due to the impact of human interventions on forest structure, composition, and diversity, conservation programs are recommended for implementation and in collaboration with local communities to employ management aimed at providing services for local people while restoring these forests. Basic ecological studies such as this study are the foundation to begin developing policies and management that meet multiple ecological and social goals.

The Caucasian grouse Lyrurus mlokosiewiczi, one of the most poorly known species of grouse, is experiencing population declines associated with multiple threats. Evaluating species' population status in relation to different local human activities is important to inform conservation and identify suitable management methods, but determining status and threats for poorly known taxa may require assessment of non‐standard sources of ecological information. We investigated what novel insights can be provided by local ecological knowledge (LEK) about population status and threats to the Caucasian grouse, in relation to the comparative status of other co‐occurring wildlife and to different local land‐use activities, and how data on local awareness and attitudes can guide conservation planning for this species. We conducted an interview survey in rural communities in the Arasbaran Biosphere Reserve (ABR), Iran, and collected LEK from 95 respondents within villages situated close to the locations of surviving and extirpated grouse populations. LEK is a useful tool for assessing the status of grouse populations: 41.1% of respondents recognized grouse and 30.5% had seen the species, and respondents within villages situated close to surviving grouse populations had greater awareness, sighting likelihood, and more recent sightings. More respondents considered that grouse and other galliforms had declined in comparison to other wildlife. Decline and disappearance of grouse populations is associated with alteration and disturbance of grouse habitat, with potential drivers including increased cattle grazing and local bans on harvesting fodder. These findings provide a new baseline to guide the development of suitable grassland management strategies (e.g. grazing regimes) for this species, and highlight the importance of further assessment of the effects of habitat disturbance on grouse survival, including understanding local histories of human–environmental interaction. Current landscape management methods are not supported by local people within the ABR, with most respondents disagreeing with the strict conservation measures currently in place, and we recommend that a new management system should be developed for Caucasian grouse conservation, including targeted conservation education and involving local community participation and co‐management. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Adequate knowledge about the effects of climate change on the environment is an important factor in taking conscious action to reduce its effects. The future behavior of students is influenced by their education about environmental and climate change issues. Students located in forested (Kalibar) and non-forested (Tabriz) regions were selected to participate in this study because of the importance of environmental knowledge in promoting better management of natural resources and combating climate change effects. Measuring students’ attitudes toward education and climate change can allow decision-makers to plan an appropriate program of instruction and determine the effectiveness of the curriculum.