Textile materials are one of the primary sources of microplastic pollution. The washing procedure is by far the most significant way that textile products release microplastic fibers (MPFs). Therefore, in this study, the effects of various textile raw materials (A acrylic, PA polyamide, PET polyester, RPET recycled polyester and PP polypropylene), fabric construction properties (woven, knitted), thickness and basis weight values on MPFs release at different washing stages (pre-washing, soaping/rinsing) were examined separately. To mimic the most popular home washing procedures, a 10-min pre-wash and a 35-min soaping/rinsing phase at 40 °C were selected for the washing procedure. Utilizing the Image J program on macroscopic images captured by a high-resolution SL. R camera, the microfibers collected by filtering the water have been visually counted. According to the results, knitted fabrics released fewer MPFs than woven fabrics, with the woven acrylic sample (A3-w) exhibiting the highest release (2405 MPFs). The number of MPFs increased along with the thickness and weight of the fabric. Recycled polyester was found to release more MPFs than virgin polyester under the same conditions (1193 MPFs vs. 908 MPFs). This study demonstrates how recycled polyester, although initially an environmentally beneficial solution, can eventually become detrimental to the environment. Furthermore, it is known that the pre-washing procedure-which is optional-releases a lot more MPFs than the soaping and rinsing procedures, and that stopping this procedure will drastically lower the amount of MPFs incorporated into the water.

This study aimed at a quantitative analysis of the material flows associated with End of Life (EoL) lithium-ion batteries’ (LIBs) materials in Europe. The European electric vehicles fleet in 2020 was taken as a case study, assuming a 10-year lifetime for the batteries and that the related EoL LIBs would be processed by existing recycling plants via pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, or their combination in sequence. The economic implications (recycling operative costs compared to the revenues from the sales of the recycled metals) and the environmental performances (CO₂ eq. emitted, energy demand and circularity performances) were assessed. Based on the gathered results, the existing European recycling capacity will overlook over 78% of the forecasted EoL LIBs. The treatment efficiencies of the full-scale recycling processes allow for the recovery of over 90% of copper, cobalt, nickel, and manganese, 87% of aluminum, and only 42% of lithium and 35% of iron entering the recycling facilities. In overall, LIBs recycling in 2030 will involve the emission of 3.7 Mt of CO₂ eq. and an energy demand of 33.6 GWh. Hydrometallurgy presents the best economic and environmental trade-off compared to other recycling strategies. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that current European LIBs’ recycling infrastructure will be inadequate in the near future and the direction (i.e., hydrometallurgy) that its strengthening should pursue.

In 2018, the production of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in EU-28 reached 250.6 Mt, with the adoption of different management strategies, involving recycling (48 wt %), incineration and thermal valorization (29 wt %) and landfilling (23 wt %). This work was based on the analysis of the baseline situation of MSW management in EU-28 in 2018, considering its progress in 2008–2018, and discussed the possible improvement perspectives based on a framework involving incineration and recycling as the only possible alternatives, specifically evaluating the capability of already-existing incineration plants to fulfill the EU needs in the proposed framework. The results of the assessment showed two main crucial issues that could play a pivotal role in the achievement of Circular Economy action plan targets: the need to increase the recycling quotas for specific MSW fractions through the separate collection, and therefore the improvement of definite treatment process chains; the optimization of the recovery of secondary raw materials from incineration bottom ash, involving the recycling of ferrous and nonferrous metals and the mineral fraction. Both issues need to find an extensive application across all member states to decrease the actual differences in the adoption of sustainable MSW management options.

European legislation stated that electric vehicles' sale must increase to 35% of circulating vehicles by 2030, and concern is associated to the batteries' supply chain. This review aims at analysing the impacts (about material flows and CO₂ eq emissions) of Lithium-Ion Batteries' (LIBs) recycling at full-scale in Europe in 2030 on the European LIBs' supply-chain. Literature review provided the recycling technologies' (e.g., pyro- and hydrometallurgy) efficiencies, and an inventory of existing LIBs' production and recycling plants in Europe. European production plants exhibit production capacity adequate for the expected 2030 needs. The key critical issues associated to recycling regard pre-treatments and the high costs and environmental impacts of metallurgical processes. Then, according to different LIBs' composition and market shares in 2020, and assuming a 10-year battery lifetime, the Material Flow Analysis (MFA) of the metals embodied in End of Life (EoL) LIBs forecasted in Europe in 2030 was modelled, and the related CO₂ eq emissions calculated. In 2030 the European LIBs' recycling structure is expected to receive 664 t of Al, 530 t of Co, 1308 t of Cu, 219 t of Fe, 175 t of Li, 287 t of Mn and 486 t of Ni. Of these, 99% Al, 86% Co, 96% Cu, 88% Mn and 98% Ni will be potentially recovered by pyrometallurgy, and 71% Al, 92% Co, 92% Fe, 96% Li, 88 % Mn and 90% Ni by hydrometallurgy. However, even if the recycling efficiencies of the technologies applied at full-scale are high, the treatment capacity of European recycling plants could supply as recycled metals only 2%-wt of the materials required for European LIBs' production in 2030 (specifically 278 t of Al, 468 t of Co, 531 t of Cu, 114 t of Fe, 95 t of Li, 250 t of Mn and 428 t of Ni). Nevertheless, including recycled metals in the production of new LIBs could cut up 28% of CO₂ eq emissions, compared to the use of virgin raw materials, and support the European batteries' value chain.