The rapid increase in the number of diabetic patients globally and exploration of alternate insulin delivery methods such as inhalation or oral route that rely on higher doses, is bound to escalate the demand for recombinant insulin in near future. Current manufacturing technologies would be unable to meet the growing demand of affordable insulin due to limitation in production capacity and high production cost. Manufacturing of therapeutic recombinant proteins require an appropriate host organism with efficient machinery for posttranslational modifications and protein refolding. Recombinant human insulin has been produced predominantly using E. coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae for therapeutic use in human. We would focus in this review, on various approaches that can be exploited to increase the production of a biologically active insulin and its analogues in E. coli and yeast. Transgenic plants are also very attractive expression system, which can be exploited to produce insulin in large quantities for therapeutic use in human. Plant-based expression system hold tremendous potential for high-capacity production of insulin in very cost-effective manner. Very high level of expression of biologically active proinsulin in seeds or leaves with long-term stability, offers a low-cost technology for both injectable as well as oral delivery of proinsulin.

Dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) are widespread in the desert and semi-desert areas of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, some parts of southwest Asia and Australia. In the Arabian Peninsula, these well-adapted species have been classified based on their ecology into Desert camels, found mainly in the north and center of the Peninsula, Mountain camels, distributed along the west and south of the Peninsula, and Beach camels, populating the west to southwest of the Peninsula. Here, we aimed to investigate the genetic relationship between 386 camels corresponding to 12 dromedary populations from different geographical locations and ecology in the Arabian Peninsula with the genotyping of 17 microsatellite loci. No significant deviation was observed in heterozygosity, allelic richness, Fis (inbreeding coefficient) among the studied populations had a mean value of 0.5849, 4.808 and 0.04, respectively. A mean Fst (fixation index) value of 0.0304 was calculated for the various populations with the highest value obtained between racing Omani and Awarik camel populations (0.079). Both the neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree and the STRUCTURE analysis divided the populations into three different groups corresponding to their Arabian Peninsula geographic location (North, Central and West, South-West, and South-East of the Arabian Peninsula), rather than their ecological classification, with a high level of genetic admixture and gene flow among them. Investigating the genetic relationship of dromedary populations in the Arabian Peninsula can be considered as the first milestone to conserve this well-adapted species. The results obtained here need to be further validated using whole genome sequencing data.

Fermented camel’s milk has various health beneficial prebiotics and probiotics. This study aimed to evaluate the preventive efficacy of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens enriched camel milk (BEY) in 2-, 4- and 6-Trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis mice models. To this end, the immune modulatory effects of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BA) on TNF-α challenged HT29 colon cells were estimated using the cell proliferation and cytokines ELISA method. BEY was prepared using the incubation method and nutritional value was quantified by comparing it to commercial yogurt. Furthermore, TNBS-induced colitis was established and the level of disease index, pathological scores, and inflammatory markers of BEY-treated mice using macroscopic and microscopic examinations, qPCR and immunoblot were investigated. The results demonstrate that BA is non-toxic to HT29 colon cells and balanced the inflammatory cytokines. BEY reduced the colitis disease index, and improved the body weight and colon length of the TNBS-induced mice. Additionally, Myeloperoxidase (MPO) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1β, IL6, IL8 and TNF-α) were attenuated by BEY treatment. Moreover, the inflammatory progress mRNA and protein markers nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and occludin were significantly down-regulated by BEY treatment. Interestingly, significant suppression of PCNA was observed in colonic tissues using the immunohistochemical examination. Treatment with BEY increased the epigenetic (microRNA217) interactions with PCNA. In conclusion, the BEY clearly alleviated the colitis symptoms and in the future could be used to formulate a probiotic-based diet for the host gut health and control the inflammatory bowel syndrome in mammals.

Multiple sclerosis (MS), a distinct autoimmune neuroinflammatory disorder, affects millions of people worldwide, including Saudi Arabia. Changes in the gut microbiome are linked to the development of neuroinflammation via mechanisms that are not fully understood. Prebiotics and probiotics in camel milk that has been fermented have a variety of health benefits. In this study, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens-supplemented camel milk (BASY) was used to assess its preventive effect on MS symptoms in a myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-immunized C57BL6J mice model. To this end, MOG-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) was established and the level of disease index, pathological scores, and anti-inflammatory markers of BASY-treated mice using macroscopic and microscopic examinations, qPCR and immunoblot were investigated. The results demonstrate that BASY significantly reduced the EAE disease index, increased total microbial load (2.5 fold), and improved the levels of the short-chain fatty acids propionic, butyric and caproic acids in the diseased mice group. Additionally, myeloperoxidase (MPO) proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17, TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (TGF-β) were regulated by BASY treatment. Significant suppression of MPO and VCAM levels were noticed in the BASY-treated group (from 168 to 111 µM and from 34 to 27 pg/mL, respectively), in comparison to the EAE group. BASY treatment significantly reduced the expression of inflammatory cytokines, inflammatory progression related transcripts, and inflammatory progression protein markers. In conclusion, BASY significantly reduced the symptoms of EAE mice and may be used to develop a probiotic-based diet to promote host gut health. The cumulative findings of this study confirm the significant neuroprotection of BASY in the MOG-induced mice model. They could also suggest a novel approach to the treatment of MS-associated disorders.

Dromedary camel or Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius) has great economic importance due to its milk and byproducts. Its milk has high nutrition along with healthy bacteria such as Lactic acid bacteria helpful in the fermentation process. The aim was to compare the probiotic bacteria from one week of lactating camel milk vs one year lactating camel milk to differentiate the potential probiotics. This study analyzed the microbiomes of one year lactating raw camel milk M1, M2 (A) (n = 10) and one week of lactating camel milk M3, M4 (B) (n = 10) through metagenomic analysis of 16S rRNA. In total, 276 species were found in two groups (A and B) and they shared 55 genes. Group B showed a higher number of species (2 2 0) than group A (56). The statistical data on functional annotations such as Card, COG, NOG and Swiss-prot revealed at least one or more contributions from this study sample database. The phylum Proteobacteria contributed largely up to 75 % in group B. In contrast, Ascomycota and Verrucomicrobia existed in higher quantity in group A than in group B and Firmicutes were slightly higher in group A than in group B. Actinobacteria were higher in group B whereas Bacteroidetes dominated in group A than group B. The potential probiotic bacteria found in camel milk including Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium, Propionibacterium, Streptococcus thermophilus, Solibacillus silvestris and Akkermansia muciniphila. Despite the probiotic bacteria some pathogenic microbes also resided in the studied samples, hence it is strongly recommended proper sterilization before consumption. This proposed research is to get an efficient microbial consortium of beneficial bacteria and their functional roles.