Annually, approximately 3 billion tires are commercially transacted worldwide each year and an equivalent amount is disposed of by the end of their life. Despite the increase in the life of tires and the global economic and pandemic crisis, the number of discarded tires is going to rise further due to the increasing demand for vehicles worldwide (approximately 5 billion tires by the end of 2030). The obsolete methods of tire disposal, including landfill, burning, etc., are a responsible for environmental issues (harmful substances production, air and soil pollution) and for the transmission of various diseases. Nowadays, approximately 70% of the total tires at the end of their life (ELTs) is recovered. The largest percentage of the recovered ELTs is intended for energy production or recovery as a fuel in cement industries or can be used for the production of various materials. A significant amount (approximately 95%) of the discarded ELTs can be reused. The products from the processing of ELTs can be fragments of different sizes and types, including: Trimmed rubber (70% by weight), steel wire (5–30% by weight), and fluff or textile fibers (up to 15% by weight). From the aforementioned materials, rubber and steel wires are mainly recovered and used for numerous applications. However, current ways of utilizing these materials will have to adapt or change in the near future, in order to comply with stricter regulations. The purpose of the current study is to sufficiently review recent progress on the management of ELTs, focusing on alternative uses of textile fibers such as additive for sound absorbing materials, bituminous conglomerates, concrete production, plastic materials, soil reinforcement, etc.

This paper explores the development of positive energy communities using Eordaia, Greece, as a case study. The approach combines building and district-level energy analysis to achieve nearly zero energy performance through retrofitting, district-level storage systems, and renewable energy technologies. A parametric analysis utilizing RETSCREEN Expert and EnergyPlan software determines the optimal mix of technologies based on technical and financial parameters, with Eordaia, a region in energy transition and part of the RESPONSE Horizon project, illustrating the practical benefits. It includes a neighborhood of 105 mixed-use properties and two municipal buildings where a range of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency measures are applied. Insulation, photovoltaic systems, LED lighting, predictive thermostats, and windows coated with nanotechnology are some of the key interventions considered. The findings show considerable reductions in CO₂ emissions and energy use, with payback periods ranging from 8.7 to 9.6 years. This study underscores the value of district-level strategies over individual building retrofits, highlighting cost savings and improved energy performance. These findings offer valuable insights for urban planners and policymakers aiming to transform urban areas into sustainable, positive energy districts, supporting the EU’s 2050 net-zero emissions goals.

Background Vertical farming offers a promising solution to food production challenges in urban and climate-constrained regions, yet its high energy demand raises concerns about sustainability. Methods This study evaluates the performance and carbon footprint of a pilot vertical farming unit in Northern Greece using TRNSYS 18 simulations and high- resolution environmental data. Forty-eight cultivation scenarios were generated by varying photoperiods, humidity levels, and HVAC setpoints to reflect seasonal Mediterranean conditions. Each scenario was analyzed for energy consumption, grid reliance, photovoltaic sufficiency, and life cycle and CO 2 emissions. A dynamic crop cycle estimation model was applied to capture seasonal variability and align planting windows with solar energy availability. Performance benchmarking was conducted through a multi-criteria framework introducing the Grid Independence Index, Seasonal Resilience Score, and energy-per-cycle indicators. Results The median carbon footprint across scenarios was 3.67kg CO 2 per kilogram of lettuce (Lactuca Sativa), representing favorable performance compared to conventional methods such as greenhouse cultivation. The analysis demonstrated seasonal fluctuations in photovoltaic sufficiency, with certain scenarios achieving higher autonomy during spring and summer. A Lighting Flexibility Classification was developed to identify the maximum lighting reduction tolerance per scenario without increasing total energy demand, resulting in five flexibility levels and supporting adaptive climate-responsive strategies. Conclusions The findings highlight the potential of simulation-based design for optimizing energy use and minimizing environmental impacts in control-environment agriculture. The proposed metrics and classification provide practical tools for improving the resilience and sustainability of vertical farming under Mediterranean conditions.

Background Vertical farming offers a promising solution to food production challenges in urban and climate-constrained regions, yet its high energy demand raises concerns about sustainability. Most existing studies assess energy demand and CO 2 emissions under static operational assumptions and lack a comprehensive framework linking seasonal renewable availability, crop cycle timing, and operational flexibility to system resilience and grid dependency. Methods This study evaluates the performance and carbon footprint of a fully enclosed pilot vertical farming unit in Northern Greece using TRNSYS 18 simulations and high-resolution environmental data. Forty-eight cultivation scenarios were generated by varying photoperiods, humidity levels, and HVAC setpoints to reflect seasonal Mediterranean conditions. Each scenario was analyzed for energy consumption, grid reliance, photovoltaic sufficiency, and life cycle CO 2 emissions. A dynamic crop cycle estimation model was applied to capture seasonal variability and align planting windows with solar energy availability. Performance benchmarking was implemented through a novel resilience-based multi-criteria framework combining energy-per-cycle metrics with two composite indices, the Grid Independence Index (GII) and the Seasonal Resilience Score (SRS), formulated in this study as a key methodological innovation. A Lighting Flexibility Classification System was further developed to determine the maximum safe reduction in artificial lighting without increasing total energy demand. Results The median carbon footprint across the 48 simulated scenarios was 3.67 kg CO 2 kg −1 of lettuce (Lactuca Sativa), with optimized configurations achieving substantially lower emissions compared to conventional greenhouse cultivation. Crop cycle duration varied between 34 and 52 days depending on photoperiod and temperature setpoints. Aligning cultivation cycles with high solar availability, combined with dynamic lighting adjustments, PV contribution to annual electricity coverage was significantly enhanced. In such configurations, lighting inputs were reduced by up to 10% without causing an increase in total system energy requirements. Conclusions The findings highlight the potential of simulation-based design for optimizing energy use and minimizing environmental impacts in control-environment agriculture. The proposed metrics and classification provide practical tools for improving the resilience and sustainability of vertical farming under Mediterranean conditions.