The present cross-sectional survey was carried out to investigate the distribution and risk factors of FMD in Pakistan’s northern border regions. About 385 serum samples were compiled from small ruminants (239) and large ruminants (146) and tested using 3ABC-Mab-bELISA. An overall apparent seroprevalence of 67.0% was documented. The highest seroprevalence of 81.1% was reported in the Swat, followed by 76.6% in Mohmand, 72.7% in Gilgit, 65.6% in Shangla, 63.4% in Bajaur, 46.6% in Chitral and lowest 46.5% in Khyber region. Statistically significant variations in seroprevalence of 51.5%, 71.8%, 58.3%, and 74.4% were recorded in sheep, goats, cattle, and buffaloes, respectively. From the different risk factors investigated, age, sex, species of animal, seasons, flock/herd size, farming methods, outbreak location, and nomadic animal movement were found to be significantly associated (p < 0.05) with the seroprevalence of FMD. It was concluded that proper epidemiological study, risk-based FMD surveillance in small ruminants, vaccination strategy, control measures for transboundary animal movement, collaborations, and awareness programs need to be practiced in the study regions to investigate the newly circulating virus strains in large and small ruminants and associated factors for the wide seroprevalence to plan proper control policies to bound the consequence of FMD in the region.

The Swat district, a conflict-hit territory due to Taliban militancy, had a damaged local health infrastructure. Animal-bite injuries leading to rabies is one of the major health concerns in developing countries, especially within conflict zones. The current prospective epidemiological study was conducted to estimate the cumulative incidence of animal-bite injuries, to summarize characteristics of bite victims and biting animals, and to collect information about post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) practices in Swat district, Pakistan, during 2014. A questionnaire was designed to collect data about the sociodemography of the patients, bite incident situation (provoked or unprovoked), injury pattern, animal type, PEP, and vaccination. Descriptive analyses were conducted using bar graphs, frequency tables, and chi-square tests were used to determine associations. The cumulative incidence of animal-bite injuries was 39 per 100,000 people during the study period (May–August 2014). The majority of incidents were reported from rural regions (77.7%) and were males (76.6%) younger than 10 years (37.3%). Dogs were the most frequent biting animal (86.8%) followed by rats (4.7%). About 77.7% patients washed their wound before arrival at hospital. After an eclipse phase of 10 days, 44 (10.1%) animals developed sign of rabies. The current study has highlighted a topic of interest for health, education, veterinary, and local government policy makers regarding prevention of animal bites, benefits of PEP, vaccination of human and domestic animals, control of stray dogs, and eradication of rabies in developing countries with damaged healthcare structures.

Timely detection of specific antibodies against foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is critical to effective prevention and control of the disease. In this study, we developed a competitive chemiluminescent enzyme immunoassay (cCLEIA) based on recombinant FMDV VP2 protein (FMDV-VP2 cCLEIA) for simultaneous detection of antibodies against FMDV serotypes O and A in serum samples. Using a cut-off of 35% percentage inhibition (PI), the FMDV-VP2 cCLEIA achieved a relative sensitivity of 101.5% and a relative specificity of 102% compared with commercial FMDV serotypes O and A liquid-phase blocking ELISA (LPBE) kits. The assay showed high specificity for detection of antibodies against FMDV serotypes A and O, with no cross-reactivity observed against positive sera for classical swine fever virus, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, and Senecavirus A. Both intra-batch and inter-batch coefficients of variation were below 15%, confirming excellent assay reproducibility. The testing of 40 field serum samples yielded a positive detection rate of 95% using the FMDV-VP2 cCLEIA, compared with 92.5% using the FMDV serotypes O and A LPBE kits. In conclusion, the FMDV-VP2 cCLEIA developed is a rapid, sensitive assay for simultaneous detection of antibodies against FMDV serotypes O and A, which may offer a valuable tool for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) surveillance and control programs.