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Etienne Thiry
Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, FARAH Research Centre, Liège University, Liège, Belgium

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Original paper
Published: 07 August 2021 in Food and Environmental Virology
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Human noroviruses impose a considerable health burden globally. Here, a flow cytometry approach designed for their detection in biological waste and food samples was developed using antibody-coated magnetic beads. Antipeptide antibodies against murine norovirus and various human norovirus genotypes were generated for capture and coated onto magnetic beads. A flow cytometry assay was then implemented to detect bead-bound human norovirus GI.3 in patient stool samples and in norovirus-spiked mussel digestive tissues. The detection limit for stool samples was 105 gc/mL, thus bettering detection limits of commercially available norovirus diagnosis quick kits of 100-fold; the detection limit in spiked mussels however was ten-fold higher than in stool samples. Further assays showed a decrease in fluorescence intensity for heat- or UV-inactivated virus particles. Overall, we demonstrate the application of a flow cytometry approach for direct detection of small non-enveloped virus particles such as noroviruses. An adaptation of the technology to routine diagnostics has the potential to contribute a rapid and sensitive tool to norovirus outbreak investigations. Further improvements to the method, notably decreasing the detection limit of the approach, may allow the analysis of naturally contaminated food and environmental samples.

ACS Style

Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Mamadou Amadou Diallo; Benjamin G. Dewals; Alain Vanderplasschen; Olivier Nivelles; Caroline Deketelaere; Axel Mauroy; Etienne Thiry. Development of a Specific Anti-capsid Antibody- and Magnetic Bead-Based Immunoassay to Detect Human Norovirus Particles in Stool Samples and Spiked Mussels via Flow Cytometry. Food and Environmental Virology 2021, 1 -14.

AMA Style

Ravo M. Razafimahefa, Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall, Mamadou Amadou Diallo, Benjamin G. Dewals, Alain Vanderplasschen, Olivier Nivelles, Caroline Deketelaere, Axel Mauroy, Etienne Thiry. Development of a Specific Anti-capsid Antibody- and Magnetic Bead-Based Immunoassay to Detect Human Norovirus Particles in Stool Samples and Spiked Mussels via Flow Cytometry. Food and Environmental Virology. 2021; ():1-14.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Mamadou Amadou Diallo; Benjamin G. Dewals; Alain Vanderplasschen; Olivier Nivelles; Caroline Deketelaere; Axel Mauroy; Etienne Thiry. 2021. "Development of a Specific Anti-capsid Antibody- and Magnetic Bead-Based Immunoassay to Detect Human Norovirus Particles in Stool Samples and Spiked Mussels via Flow Cytometry." Food and Environmental Virology , no. : 1-14.

Review
Published: 04 August 2021 in Viruses
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Human noroviruses are recognised as the major global cause of viral gastroenteritis. Here, we provide an overview of notable advances in norovirus research and provide a short recap of the novel model systems to which much of the recent progress is owed. Significant advances include an updated classification system, the description of alternative virus-like protein morphologies and capsid dynamics, and the further elucidation of the functions and roles of various viral proteins. Important milestones include new insights into cell tropism, host and microbial attachment factors and receptors, interactions with the cellular translational apparatus, and viral egress from cells. Noroviruses have been detected in previously unrecognised hosts and detection itself is facilitated by improved analytical techniques. New potential transmission routes and/or viral reservoirs have been proposed. Recent in vivo and in vitro findings have added to the understanding of host immunity in response to norovirus infection, and vaccine development has progressed to preclinical and even clinical trial testing. Ongoing development of therapeutics includes promising direct-acting small molecules and host-factor drugs.

ACS Style

Louisa Ludwig-Begall; Axel Mauroy; Etienne Thiry. Noroviruses—The State of the Art, Nearly Fifty Years after Their Initial Discovery. Viruses 2021, 13, 1541 .

AMA Style

Louisa Ludwig-Begall, Axel Mauroy, Etienne Thiry. Noroviruses—The State of the Art, Nearly Fifty Years after Their Initial Discovery. Viruses. 2021; 13 (8):1541.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Louisa Ludwig-Begall; Axel Mauroy; Etienne Thiry. 2021. "Noroviruses—The State of the Art, Nearly Fifty Years after Their Initial Discovery." Viruses 13, no. 8: 1541.

Review
Published: 23 July 2021 in Viruses
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In the past, cats were considered resistant to influenza. Today, we know that they are susceptible to some influenza A viruses (IAVs) originating in other species. Usually, the outcome is only subclinical infection or a mild fever. However, outbreaks of feline disease caused by canine H3N2 IAV with fever, tachypnoea, sneezing, coughing, dyspnoea and lethargy are occasionally noted in shelters. In one such outbreak, the morbidity rate was 100% and the mortality rate was 40%. Recently, avian H7N2 IAV infection occurred in cats in some shelters in the USA, inducing mostly mild respiratory disease. Furthermore, cats are susceptible to experimental infection with the human H3N2 IAV that caused the pandemic in 1968. Several studies indicated that cats worldwide could be infected by H1N1 IAV during the subsequent human pandemic in 2009. In one shelter, severe cases with fatalities were noted. Finally, the highly pathogenic avian H5N1 IAV can induce a severe, fatal disease in cats, and can spread via cat-to-cat contact. In this review, the Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European countries, summarises current data regarding the aetiology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical picture, diagnostics, and control of feline IAV infections, as well as the zoonotic risks.

ACS Style

Tadeusz Frymus; Sándor Belák; Herman Egberink; Regina Hofmann-Lehmann; Fulvio Marsilio; Diane Addie; Corine Boucraut-Baralon; Katrin Hartmann; Albert Lloret; Hans Lutz; Maria Pennisi; Etienne Thiry; Uwe Truyen; Séverine Tasker; Karin Möstl; Margaret Hosie. Influenza Virus Infections in Cats. Viruses 2021, 13, 1435 .

AMA Style

Tadeusz Frymus, Sándor Belák, Herman Egberink, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann, Fulvio Marsilio, Diane Addie, Corine Boucraut-Baralon, Katrin Hartmann, Albert Lloret, Hans Lutz, Maria Pennisi, Etienne Thiry, Uwe Truyen, Séverine Tasker, Karin Möstl, Margaret Hosie. Influenza Virus Infections in Cats. Viruses. 2021; 13 (8):1435.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tadeusz Frymus; Sándor Belák; Herman Egberink; Regina Hofmann-Lehmann; Fulvio Marsilio; Diane Addie; Corine Boucraut-Baralon; Katrin Hartmann; Albert Lloret; Hans Lutz; Maria Pennisi; Etienne Thiry; Uwe Truyen; Séverine Tasker; Karin Möstl; Margaret Hosie. 2021. "Influenza Virus Infections in Cats." Viruses 13, no. 8: 1435.

Original article
Published: 21 May 2021 in Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology
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Objective: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has resulted in shortages of personal protective equipment (PPE), underscoring the urgent need for simple, efficient, and inexpensive methods to decontaminate masks and respirators exposed to severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). We hypothesized that methylene blue (MB) photochemical treatment, which has various clinical applications, could decontaminate PPE contaminated with coronavirus. Design: The 2 arms of the study included (1) PPE inoculation with coronaviruses followed by MB with light (MBL) decontamination treatment and (2) PPE treatment with MBL for 5 cycles of decontamination to determine maintenance of PPE performance. Methods: MBL treatment was used to inactivate coronaviruses on 3 N95 filtering facepiece respirator (FFR) and 2 medical mask models. We inoculated FFR and medical mask materials with 3 coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2, and we treated them with 10 µM MB and exposed them to 50,000 lux of white light or 12,500 lux of red light for 30 minutes. In parallel, integrity was assessed after 5 cycles of decontamination using multiple US and international test methods, and the process was compared with the FDA-authorized vaporized hydrogen peroxide plus ozone (VHP+O3) decontamination method. Results: Overall, MBL robustly and consistently inactivated all 3 coronaviruses with 99.8% to >99.9% virus inactivation across all FFRs and medical masks tested. FFR and medical mask integrity was maintained after 5 cycles of MBL treatment, whereas 1 FFR model failed after 5 cycles of VHP+O3. Conclusions: MBL treatment decontaminated respirators and masks by inactivating 3 tested coronaviruses without compromising integrity through 5 cycles of decontamination. MBL decontamination is effective, is low cost, and does not require specialized equipment, making it applicable in low- to high-resource settings.

ACS Style

Thomas Sean Lendvay; James Chen; Brian H. Harcourt; Florine E. M. Scholte; Ying Ling Lin; F. Selcen Kilinc-Balci; Molly M. Lamb; Kamonthip Homdayjanakul; Yi Cui; Amy Price; Belinda Heyne; Jaya Sahni; Kareem B. Kabra; Yi-Chan Lin; David Evans; Christopher N. Mores; Ken Page; Larry F. Chu; Eric Haubruge; Etienne Thiry; Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Constance Wielick; Tanner Clark; Thor Wagner; Emily Timm; Thomas Gallagher; Peter Faris; Nicolas Macia; Cyrus J. Mackie; Sarah M. Simmons; Susan Reader; Rebecca Malott; Karen Hope; Jan M. Davies; Sarah R. Tritsch; Lorène Dams; Hans Nauwynck; Jean-Francois Willaert; Simon De Jaeger; Lei Liao; Mervin Zhao; Jan Laperre; Olivier Jolois; Sarah J. Smit; Alpa N. Patel; Mark Mayo; Rod Parker; Vanessa Molloy-Simard; Jean-Luc Lemyre; Steven Chu; John M. Conly; May C. Chu. Addressing personal protective equipment (PPE) decontamination: Methylene blue and light inactivates severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) on N95 respirators and medical masks with maintenance of integrity and fit. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology 2021, 1 -10.

AMA Style

Thomas Sean Lendvay, James Chen, Brian H. Harcourt, Florine E. M. Scholte, Ying Ling Lin, F. Selcen Kilinc-Balci, Molly M. Lamb, Kamonthip Homdayjanakul, Yi Cui, Amy Price, Belinda Heyne, Jaya Sahni, Kareem B. Kabra, Yi-Chan Lin, David Evans, Christopher N. Mores, Ken Page, Larry F. Chu, Eric Haubruge, Etienne Thiry, Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall, Constance Wielick, Tanner Clark, Thor Wagner, Emily Timm, Thomas Gallagher, Peter Faris, Nicolas Macia, Cyrus J. Mackie, Sarah M. Simmons, Susan Reader, Rebecca Malott, Karen Hope, Jan M. Davies, Sarah R. Tritsch, Lorène Dams, Hans Nauwynck, Jean-Francois Willaert, Simon De Jaeger, Lei Liao, Mervin Zhao, Jan Laperre, Olivier Jolois, Sarah J. Smit, Alpa N. Patel, Mark Mayo, Rod Parker, Vanessa Molloy-Simard, Jean-Luc Lemyre, Steven Chu, John M. Conly, May C. Chu. Addressing personal protective equipment (PPE) decontamination: Methylene blue and light inactivates severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) on N95 respirators and medical masks with maintenance of integrity and fit. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology. 2021; ():1-10.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Thomas Sean Lendvay; James Chen; Brian H. Harcourt; Florine E. M. Scholte; Ying Ling Lin; F. Selcen Kilinc-Balci; Molly M. Lamb; Kamonthip Homdayjanakul; Yi Cui; Amy Price; Belinda Heyne; Jaya Sahni; Kareem B. Kabra; Yi-Chan Lin; David Evans; Christopher N. Mores; Ken Page; Larry F. Chu; Eric Haubruge; Etienne Thiry; Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Constance Wielick; Tanner Clark; Thor Wagner; Emily Timm; Thomas Gallagher; Peter Faris; Nicolas Macia; Cyrus J. Mackie; Sarah M. Simmons; Susan Reader; Rebecca Malott; Karen Hope; Jan M. Davies; Sarah R. Tritsch; Lorène Dams; Hans Nauwynck; Jean-Francois Willaert; Simon De Jaeger; Lei Liao; Mervin Zhao; Jan Laperre; Olivier Jolois; Sarah J. Smit; Alpa N. Patel; Mark Mayo; Rod Parker; Vanessa Molloy-Simard; Jean-Luc Lemyre; Steven Chu; John M. Conly; May C. Chu. 2021. "Addressing personal protective equipment (PPE) decontamination: Methylene blue and light inactivates severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) on N95 respirators and medical masks with maintenance of integrity and fit." Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology , no. : 1-10.

Health care
Published: 19 May 2021 in PLoS ONE
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Background As the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic accelerates, the supply of personal protective equipment remains under strain. To combat shortages, re-use of surgical masks and filtering facepiece respirators has been recommended. Prior decontamination is paramount to the re-use of these typically single-use only items and, without compromising their integrity, must guarantee inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 and other contaminating pathogens. Aim We provide information on the effect of time-dependent passive decontamination (infectivity loss over time during room temperature storage in a breathable bag) and evaluate inactivation of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate and a non-enveloped model virus as well as mask and respirator integrity following active multiple-cycle vaporised hydrogen peroxide (VHP), ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI), and dry heat (DH) decontamination. Methods Masks and respirators, inoculated with infectious porcine respiratory coronavirus or murine norovirus, were submitted to passive decontamination or single or multiple active decontamination cycles; viruses were recovered from sample materials and viral titres were measured via TCID50 assay. In parallel, filtration efficiency tests and breathability tests were performed according to EN standard 14683 and NIOSH regulations. Results and discussion Infectious porcine respiratory coronavirus and murine norovirus remained detectable on masks and respirators up to five and seven days of passive decontamination. Single and multiple cycles of VHP-, UVGI-, and DH were shown to not adversely affect bacterial filtration efficiency of masks. Single- and multiple UVGI did not adversely affect respirator filtration efficiency, while VHP and DH induced a decrease in filtration efficiency after one or three decontamination cycles. Multiple cycles of VHP-, UVGI-, and DH slightly decreased airflow resistance of masks but did not adversely affect respirator breathability. VHP and UVGI efficiently inactivated both viruses after five, DH after three, decontamination cycles, permitting demonstration of a loss of infectivity by more than three orders of magnitude. This multi-disciplinal approach provides important information on how often a given PPE item may be safely reused.

ACS Style

Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Constance Wielick; Olivier Jolois; Lorène Dams; Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Hans Nauwynck; Pierre-Francois Demeuldre; Aurore Napp; Jan Laperre; Etienne Thiry; Eric Haubruge. “Don, doff, discard” to “don, doff, decontaminate”—FFR and mask integrity and inactivation of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate and a norovirus following multiple vaporised hydrogen peroxide-, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation-, and dry heat decontaminations. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0251872 .

AMA Style

Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall, Constance Wielick, Olivier Jolois, Lorène Dams, Ravo M. Razafimahefa, Hans Nauwynck, Pierre-Francois Demeuldre, Aurore Napp, Jan Laperre, Etienne Thiry, Eric Haubruge. “Don, doff, discard” to “don, doff, decontaminate”—FFR and mask integrity and inactivation of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate and a norovirus following multiple vaporised hydrogen peroxide-, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation-, and dry heat decontaminations. PLoS ONE. 2021; 16 (5):e0251872.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Constance Wielick; Olivier Jolois; Lorène Dams; Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Hans Nauwynck; Pierre-Francois Demeuldre; Aurore Napp; Jan Laperre; Etienne Thiry; Eric Haubruge. 2021. "“Don, doff, discard” to “don, doff, decontaminate”—FFR and mask integrity and inactivation of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate and a norovirus following multiple vaporised hydrogen peroxide-, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation-, and dry heat decontaminations." PLoS ONE 16, no. 5: e0251872.

Communication
Published: 02 May 2021 in Viruses
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Viral recombination is a key mechanism in the evolution and diversity of noroviruses. In vivo, synchronous single-cell coinfection by multiple viruses, the ultimate prerequisite to viral recombination, is likely to be a rare event and delayed secondary infections are a more probable occurrence. Here, we determine the effect of a temporal separation of in vitro infections with the two homologous murine norovirus strains MNV-1 WU20 and CW1 on the composition of nascent viral populations. WU20 and CW1 were either synchronously inoculated onto murine macrophage cell monolayers (coinfection) or asynchronously applied (superinfection with varying titres of CW1 at half-hour to 24-h delays). Then, 24 h after initial co-or superinfection, quantification of genomic copy numbers and discriminative screening of plaque picked infectious progeny viruses demonstrated a time-dependent predominance of primary infecting WU20 in the majority of viral progenies. Our results indicate that a time interval from one to two hours onwards between two consecutive norovirus infections allows for the establishment of a barrier that reduces or prevents superinfection.

ACS Style

Louisa Ludwig-Begall; Elisabetta Di Felice; Barbara Toffoli; Chiara Ceci; Barbara Di Martino; Fulvio Marsilio; Axel Mauroy; Etienne Thiry. Analysis of Synchronous and Asynchronous In Vitro Infections with Homologous Murine Norovirus Strains Reveals Time-Dependent Viral Interference Effects. Viruses 2021, 13, 823 .

AMA Style

Louisa Ludwig-Begall, Elisabetta Di Felice, Barbara Toffoli, Chiara Ceci, Barbara Di Martino, Fulvio Marsilio, Axel Mauroy, Etienne Thiry. Analysis of Synchronous and Asynchronous In Vitro Infections with Homologous Murine Norovirus Strains Reveals Time-Dependent Viral Interference Effects. Viruses. 2021; 13 (5):823.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Louisa Ludwig-Begall; Elisabetta Di Felice; Barbara Toffoli; Chiara Ceci; Barbara Di Martino; Fulvio Marsilio; Axel Mauroy; Etienne Thiry. 2021. "Analysis of Synchronous and Asynchronous In Vitro Infections with Homologous Murine Norovirus Strains Reveals Time-Dependent Viral Interference Effects." Viruses 13, no. 5: 823.

Review
Published: 28 April 2021 in Transboundary and Emerging Diseases
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The aim of this review paper is to evaluate the putative susceptibilities of different free‐ranging wild animal species in Belgium to SARS‐CoV‐2 and provide a risk assessment of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in those animals. Since the onset of the Covid‐19 pandemic, natural SARS‐CoV‐2 infections have mainly been confirmed in domestic and production animals, and in wild animals kept in captivity, although the numbers remain limited when compared to human cases. Recently, the first SARS‐CoV‐2 infections in presumably escaped minks found in the wild have been detected, further addressing the much‐feared scenario of transmission of the virus to animals living in the wild and its consequences. Considering the most likely origin of the virus being a wild animal and the putative susceptibilities of free‐ranging wild animal species to SARS‐CoV‐2, the risk of infection with possible establishment of the virus in these populations has to be investigated closely. The authors conclude that most attention should be given to surveillance and awareness raising activities for SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in wild mustelids, bats, wild canids and felids, particularly these collected in wildlife rescue centres. People involved in frequent and close contact with wild animals should take all necessary precautionary measures to protect wild animals against exposure to the virus. One year after the first detection of SARS‐CoV‐2 in humans, the time has come to increase investments in research and surveillance activities in animals, including in free‐ranging wild animals, as part of a One Health control of this pandemic. This study focusing on Belgium could be helpful for other countries with similar animal densities and ecosystems.

ACS Style

Myriam Logeot; Axel Mauroy; Etienne Thiry; Nick De Regge; Muriel Vervaeke; Olivier Beck; Valérie De Waele; Thierry Van Den Berg. Risk assessment of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in free‐ranging wild animals in Belgium. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2021, 1 .

AMA Style

Myriam Logeot, Axel Mauroy, Etienne Thiry, Nick De Regge, Muriel Vervaeke, Olivier Beck, Valérie De Waele, Thierry Van Den Berg. Risk assessment of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in free‐ranging wild animals in Belgium. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. 2021; ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Myriam Logeot; Axel Mauroy; Etienne Thiry; Nick De Regge; Muriel Vervaeke; Olivier Beck; Valérie De Waele; Thierry Van Den Berg. 2021. "Risk assessment of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in free‐ranging wild animals in Belgium." Transboundary and Emerging Diseases , no. : 1.

Original article
Published: 13 March 2021 in Transboundary and Emerging Diseases
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Since the introduction in Georgia in 2007 of an African swine fever (ASF) genotype 2 virus strain, the virus has rapidly spread to both Western European and Asian countries. It now constitutes a major threat for the global swine industry. The ongoing European transmission cycle has been related to the ‘wild boar habitat’ with closed transmission events between wild boar populations and incidental spillovers to commercial and non‐commercial (backyard) pig holdings. During the epidemic in Belgium, only wild boar were infected and although the introduction route has not yet been elucidated, the ‘human factor’ is highly suspected. While ASF was successfully contained in a small region in the Southern part of Belgium without affecting domestic pigs, the risk of spillover at the wild/domestic interface remains poorly assessed. In this study, we used a semi‐quantitative method, involving national and international experts, to assess the risk associated with different transmission routes for ASF introduction from wild boar to domestic pig holdings and subsequent dissemination between holdings in the Belgian epidemiological context. Qualitative responses obtained by our questionnaire were numerically transformed and statistically processed to provide a semi‐quantitative assessment of the occurrence of the hazard and a ranking of all transmission routes. ‘Farmer’, ‘bedding material’, ‘veterinarian’ and ‘professionals from the pig sector’ were considered as the most important transmission routes for ASF introduction from the wild reservoir to pig holdings. ‘Animal movements’, ‘farmer’, ‘veterinarian’, ‘iatrogenic’, ‘animal transport truck’ and ‘animal care equipment’ were considered as the most important transmission routes posing a risk of ASF spread between pig holdings. Combined with specific biosecurity checks in the holdings, this assessment helps in prioritizing risk mitigation measures against ASF introduction and further spread in the domestic pig industry, particularly while the ASF situation in Western Europe is worsening.

ACS Style

Axel Mauroy; Pieter Depoorter; Claude Saegerman; Brigitte Cay; Nick De Regge; Maria‐Eleni Filippitzi; Claude Fischer; Martine Laitat; Dominiek Maes; Kevin Morelle; Hans Nauwynck; Xavier Simons; Thierry Van Den Berg; Xavier Van Huffel; Etienne Thiry; Jeroen Dewulf. Semi‐quantitative risk assessment by expert elicitation of potential introduction routes of African swine fever from wild reservoir to domestic pig industry and subsequent spread during the Belgian outbreak (2018–2019). Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2021, 1 .

AMA Style

Axel Mauroy, Pieter Depoorter, Claude Saegerman, Brigitte Cay, Nick De Regge, Maria‐Eleni Filippitzi, Claude Fischer, Martine Laitat, Dominiek Maes, Kevin Morelle, Hans Nauwynck, Xavier Simons, Thierry Van Den Berg, Xavier Van Huffel, Etienne Thiry, Jeroen Dewulf. Semi‐quantitative risk assessment by expert elicitation of potential introduction routes of African swine fever from wild reservoir to domestic pig industry and subsequent spread during the Belgian outbreak (2018–2019). Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. 2021; ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Axel Mauroy; Pieter Depoorter; Claude Saegerman; Brigitte Cay; Nick De Regge; Maria‐Eleni Filippitzi; Claude Fischer; Martine Laitat; Dominiek Maes; Kevin Morelle; Hans Nauwynck; Xavier Simons; Thierry Van Den Berg; Xavier Van Huffel; Etienne Thiry; Jeroen Dewulf. 2021. "Semi‐quantitative risk assessment by expert elicitation of potential introduction routes of African swine fever from wild reservoir to domestic pig industry and subsequent spread during the Belgian outbreak (2018–2019)." Transboundary and Emerging Diseases , no. : 1.

Review
Published: 26 January 2021 in Viruses
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COVID-19 is a severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) caused by a new coronavirus (CoV), SARS-CoV-2, which is closely related to SARS-CoV that jumped the animal–human species barrier and caused a disease outbreak in 2003. SARS-CoV-2 is a betacoronavirus that was first described in 2019, unrelated to the commonly occurring feline coronavirus (FCoV) that is an alphacoronavirus associated with feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). SARS-CoV-2 is highly contagious and has spread globally within a few months, resulting in the current pandemic. Felids have been shown to be susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Particularly in the Western world, many people live in very close contact with their pet cats, and natural infections of cats in COVID-19-positive households have been described in several countries. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European Countries, discusses the current status of SARS-CoV infections in cats. The review examines the host range of SARS-CoV-2 and human-to-animal transmissions, including infections in domestic and non-domestic felids, as well as mink-to-human/-cat transmission. It summarises current data on SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in domestic cats and the results of experimental infections of cats and provides expert opinions on the clinical relevance and prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection in cats.

ACS Style

Margaret Hosie; Regina Hofmann-Lehmann; Katrin Hartmann; Herman Egberink; Uwe Truyen; Diane Addie; Sándor Belák; Corine Boucraut-Baralon; Tadeusz Frymus; Albert Lloret; Hans Lutz; Fulvio Marsilio; Maria Pennisi; Séverine Tasker; Etienne Thiry; Karin Möstl. Anthropogenic Infection of Cats during the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic. Viruses 2021, 13, 185 .

AMA Style

Margaret Hosie, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann, Katrin Hartmann, Herman Egberink, Uwe Truyen, Diane Addie, Sándor Belák, Corine Boucraut-Baralon, Tadeusz Frymus, Albert Lloret, Hans Lutz, Fulvio Marsilio, Maria Pennisi, Séverine Tasker, Etienne Thiry, Karin Möstl. Anthropogenic Infection of Cats during the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic. Viruses. 2021; 13 (2):185.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Margaret Hosie; Regina Hofmann-Lehmann; Katrin Hartmann; Herman Egberink; Uwe Truyen; Diane Addie; Sándor Belák; Corine Boucraut-Baralon; Tadeusz Frymus; Albert Lloret; Hans Lutz; Fulvio Marsilio; Maria Pennisi; Séverine Tasker; Etienne Thiry; Karin Möstl. 2021. "Anthropogenic Infection of Cats during the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic." Viruses 13, no. 2: 185.

Preprint content
Published: 15 January 2021
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Background As the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic accelerates, the supply of personal protective equipment remains under strain. To combat shortages, re-use of surgical masks and filtering facepiece respirators has been recommended. Prior decontamination is paramount to the re-use of these typically single-use only items and, without compromising their integrity, must guarantee inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 and other contaminating pathogens. Aim We provide information on the effect of time-dependent passive decontamination at room temperature and evaluate inactivation of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate and a non-enveloped model virus as well as mask and respirator integrity following active multiple-cycle vaporised hydrogen peroxide (VHP), ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI), and dry heat (DH) decontamination. Methods Masks and respirators, inoculated with infectious porcine respiratory coronavirus or murine norovirus, were submitted to passive decontamination or single or multiple active decontamination cycles; viruses were recovered from sample materials and viral titres were measured via TCID50 assay. In parallel, filtration efficiency tests and breathability tests were performed according to EN standard 14683 and NIOSH regulations. Results and Discussion Infectious porcine respiratory coronavirus and murine norovirus remained detectable on masks and respirators up to five and seven days of passive decontamination. Single and multiple cycles of VHP-, UVGI-, and DH were shown to not adversely affect bacterial filtration efficiency of masks. Single- and multiple UVGI did not adversely affect respirator filtration efficiency, while VHP and DH induced a decrease in filtration efficiency after one or three decontamination cycles. Multiple cycles of VHP-, UVGI-, and DH slightly decreased airflow resistance of masks but did not adversely affect respirator breathability. VHP and UVGI efficiently inactivated both viruses after five, DH after three, decontamination cycles, permitting demonstration of a loss of infectivity by more than three orders of magnitude. This multi-disciplinal approach provides important information on how often a given PPE item may be safely reused.

ACS Style

Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Constance Wielick; Olivier Jolois; Lorène Dams; Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Hans Nauwynck; Pierre-Francois Demeuldre; Aurore Napp; Jan Laperre; Frédéric Farnir; Etienne Thiry; Eric Haubruge. From “don, doff, and discard” to “don, doff, and decontaminate” – determination of filtering facepiece respirator and surgical mask integrity and inactivation of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate and a small non-enveloped virus following multiple-cycles of vaporised hydrogen peroxide, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, and dry heat decontamination. 2021, 1 .

AMA Style

Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall, Constance Wielick, Olivier Jolois, Lorène Dams, Ravo M. Razafimahefa, Hans Nauwynck, Pierre-Francois Demeuldre, Aurore Napp, Jan Laperre, Frédéric Farnir, Etienne Thiry, Eric Haubruge. From “don, doff, and discard” to “don, doff, and decontaminate” – determination of filtering facepiece respirator and surgical mask integrity and inactivation of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate and a small non-enveloped virus following multiple-cycles of vaporised hydrogen peroxide, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, and dry heat decontamination. . 2021; ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Constance Wielick; Olivier Jolois; Lorène Dams; Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Hans Nauwynck; Pierre-Francois Demeuldre; Aurore Napp; Jan Laperre; Frédéric Farnir; Etienne Thiry; Eric Haubruge. 2021. "From “don, doff, and discard” to “don, doff, and decontaminate” – determination of filtering facepiece respirator and surgical mask integrity and inactivation of a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate and a small non-enveloped virus following multiple-cycles of vaporised hydrogen peroxide, ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, and dry heat decontamination." , no. : 1.

Original paper
Published: 03 January 2021 in Food and Environmental Virology
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Human noroviruses are a major cause for gastroenteritis outbreaks. Filter-feeding bivalve molluscs, which accumulate noroviruses in their digestive tissues, are a typical vector for human infection. RT-qPCR, the established method for human norovirus detection in food, does not allow discrimination between infectious and non-infectious viruses and can overestimate potentially infectious viral loads. To develop a more accurate method of infectious norovirus load estimation, we combined intercalating agent propidium monoazide (PMAxx™)-pre-treatment with RT-qPCR assay using in vitro-cultivable murine norovirus. Three primer sets targeting different genome regions and diverse amplicon sizes were used to compare one-step amplification of a short genome fragment to three two-step long-range RT-qPCRs (7 kbp, 3.6 kbp and 2.3 kbp amplicons). Following initial assays performed on untreated infectious, heat-, or ultraviolet-inactivated murine noroviruses in PBS suspension, PMAxx™ RT-qPCRs were implemented to detect murine noroviruses subsequent to their extraction from mussel digestive tissues; virus extraction via anionic polymer-coated magnetic beads was compared with the proteinase K-dependent ISO norm. The long-range RT-qPCR process detecting fragments of more than 2.3 kbp allowed accurate estimation of the infectivity of UV-damaged murine noroviruses. While proteinase K extraction limited later estimation of PMAxx™ pre-treatment effects and was found to be unsuited to the assay, magnetic bead-captured murine noroviruses retained their infectivity. Genome copies of heat-inactivated murine noroviruses differed by 2.3 log10 between RT-qPCR and PMAxx™-RT-qPCR analysis in bivalve molluscs, the PMAxx™ pre-treatment allowing a closer approximation of infectious titres. The combination of bead-based virus extraction and PMAxx™ RT-qPCR thus provides a more accurate model for the estimation of noroviral bivalve mollusc contamination than the conjunction of proteinase K extraction and RT-qPCR and has the potential (once validated utilising infectious human norovirus) to provide an added measure of security to food safety authorities in the hazard assessment of potential bivalve mollusc contamination.

ACS Style

Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Françoise S. Le Guyader; Frédéric Farnir; Axel Mauroy; Etienne Thiry. Optimisation of a PMAxx™-RT-qPCR Assay and the Preceding Extraction Method to Selectively Detect Infectious Murine Norovirus Particles in Mussels. Food and Environmental Virology 2021, 13, 93 -106.

AMA Style

Ravo M. Razafimahefa, Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall, Françoise S. Le Guyader, Frédéric Farnir, Axel Mauroy, Etienne Thiry. Optimisation of a PMAxx™-RT-qPCR Assay and the Preceding Extraction Method to Selectively Detect Infectious Murine Norovirus Particles in Mussels. Food and Environmental Virology. 2021; 13 (1):93-106.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Françoise S. Le Guyader; Frédéric Farnir; Axel Mauroy; Etienne Thiry. 2021. "Optimisation of a PMAxx™-RT-qPCR Assay and the Preceding Extraction Method to Selectively Detect Infectious Murine Norovirus Particles in Mussels." Food and Environmental Virology 13, no. 1: 93-106.

Journal article
Published: 28 December 2020 in Infection Prevention in Practice
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In the context of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, reuse of surgical masks and filtering facepiece respirators has been recommended. Their reuse necessitates procedures to inactivate contaminating human respiratory and oral pathogens. We previously demonstrated decontamination of masks and respirators contaminated with an infectious SARS-CoV-2 surrogate via ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, vaporised hydrogen peroxide, and use of dry heat. Here, we show that these same methods efficiently inactivate a more resistant, non-enveloped oral virus; decontamination of infectious murine norovirus-contaminated masks and respirators reduced viral titres by over four orders of magnitude on mask or respirator coupons.

ACS Style

Constance Wielick; Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Lorène Dams; Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Pierre-Francois Demeuldre; Aurore Napp; Jan Laperre; Olivier Jolois; Frédéric Farnir; Eric Haubruge; Etienne Thiry. The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporised hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with an infectious norovirus. Infection Prevention in Practice 2020, 3, 100111 -100111.

AMA Style

Constance Wielick, Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall, Lorène Dams, Ravo M. Razafimahefa, Pierre-Francois Demeuldre, Aurore Napp, Jan Laperre, Olivier Jolois, Frédéric Farnir, Eric Haubruge, Etienne Thiry. The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporised hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with an infectious norovirus. Infection Prevention in Practice. 2020; 3 (1):100111-100111.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Constance Wielick; Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Lorène Dams; Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Pierre-Francois Demeuldre; Aurore Napp; Jan Laperre; Olivier Jolois; Frédéric Farnir; Eric Haubruge; Etienne Thiry. 2020. "The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporised hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with an infectious norovirus." Infection Prevention in Practice 3, no. 1: 100111-100111.

Preprint content
Published: 11 December 2020
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Background: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has resulted in severe shortages of personal protective equipment (PPE) necessary to protect front-line healthcare personnel. These shortages underscore the urgent need for simple, efficient, and inexpensive methods to decontaminate SARS-CoV-2-exposed PPE enabling safe reuse of masks and respirators. Efficient decontamination must be available not only in low-resourced settings, but also in well-resourced settings affected by PPE shortages. Methylene blue (MB) photochemical treatment, hitherto with many clinical applications including those used to inactivate virus in plasma, presents a novel approach for widely applicable PPE decontamination. Dry heat (DH) treatment is another potential low-cost decontamination method. Methods: MB and light (MBL) and DH treatments were used to inactivate coronavirus on respirator and mask material. We tested three N95 filtering facepiece respirators (FFRs), two medical masks (MMs), and one cloth community mask (CM). FFR/MM/CM materials were inoculated with SARS-CoV-2 (a Betacoronavirus), murine hepatitis virus (MHV) (a Betacoronavirus), or porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV) (an Alphacoronavirus), and treated with 10 μM MB followed by 50,000 lux of broad-spectrum light or 12,500 lux of red light for 30 minutes, or with 75°C DH for 60 minutes. In parallel, we tested respirator and mask integrity using several standard methods and compared to the FDA-authorized vaporized hydrogen peroxide plus ozone (VHP+O3) decontamination method. Intact FFRs/MMs/CM were subjected to five cycles of decontamination (5CD) to assess integrity using International Standardization Organization (ISO), American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) test methods. Findings: Overall, MBL robustly and consistently inactivated all three coronaviruses with at least a 4-log reduction. DH yielded similar results, with the exception of MHV, which was only reduced by 2-log after treatment. FFR/MM integrity was maintained for 5 cycles of MBL or DH treatment, whereas one FFR failed after 5 cycles of VHP+O3. Baseline performance for the CM was variable, but reduction of integrity was minimal. Interpretation: Methylene blue with light and DH treatment decontaminated masks and respirators by inactivating three tested coronaviruses without compromising integrity through 5CD. MBL decontamination of masks is effective, low-cost and does not require specialized equipment, making it applicable in all-resource settings. These attractive features support the utilization and continued development of this novel PPE decontamination method.

ACS Style

Thomas S Lendvay; James Chen; Brian H Harcourt; Florine E.M. Scholte; F. Selcen Kilinc-Balci; Ying Ling Lin; Molly M Lamb; Larry F Chu; Amy Price; David Evans; Yi-Chan Lin; Christopher N Mores; Jaya Sahni; Kareem B Kabra; Eric Haurbruge; Etienne Thiry; Belinda Heyne; Jan Laperre; Sarah Simmons; Jan Davies; Yi Cui; Thor Wagner; Tanner Clark; Sarah J Smit; Rod Parker; Thomas Gallagher; Emily Timm; Louisa F Ludwig-Begall; Nicolas Macia; Cyrus Mackie; Karen Hope; Ken Page; Susan Reader; Peter Faris; Oliver Jolois; Alpa Patel; Jean-Luc Lemyre; Vanessa Molly-Simard; Kamonthip Homdayjanakul; Sarah R Tritsch; Constance Wielick; Mark Mayo; Rebecca Malott; Jean-Francois Willaert; Hans Nauwynck; Loréne Dams; Simon De Jaeger; Lei Liao; Mervin Zhao; Steven Chu; John Conly; May C Chu. Addressing Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Decontamination: Methylene Blue and Light Inactivates SARS-CoV-2 on N95 Respirators and Masks with Maintenance of Integrity and Fit. 2020, 1 .

AMA Style

Thomas S Lendvay, James Chen, Brian H Harcourt, Florine E.M. Scholte, F. Selcen Kilinc-Balci, Ying Ling Lin, Molly M Lamb, Larry F Chu, Amy Price, David Evans, Yi-Chan Lin, Christopher N Mores, Jaya Sahni, Kareem B Kabra, Eric Haurbruge, Etienne Thiry, Belinda Heyne, Jan Laperre, Sarah Simmons, Jan Davies, Yi Cui, Thor Wagner, Tanner Clark, Sarah J Smit, Rod Parker, Thomas Gallagher, Emily Timm, Louisa F Ludwig-Begall, Nicolas Macia, Cyrus Mackie, Karen Hope, Ken Page, Susan Reader, Peter Faris, Oliver Jolois, Alpa Patel, Jean-Luc Lemyre, Vanessa Molly-Simard, Kamonthip Homdayjanakul, Sarah R Tritsch, Constance Wielick, Mark Mayo, Rebecca Malott, Jean-Francois Willaert, Hans Nauwynck, Loréne Dams, Simon De Jaeger, Lei Liao, Mervin Zhao, Steven Chu, John Conly, May C Chu. Addressing Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Decontamination: Methylene Blue and Light Inactivates SARS-CoV-2 on N95 Respirators and Masks with Maintenance of Integrity and Fit. . 2020; ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Thomas S Lendvay; James Chen; Brian H Harcourt; Florine E.M. Scholte; F. Selcen Kilinc-Balci; Ying Ling Lin; Molly M Lamb; Larry F Chu; Amy Price; David Evans; Yi-Chan Lin; Christopher N Mores; Jaya Sahni; Kareem B Kabra; Eric Haurbruge; Etienne Thiry; Belinda Heyne; Jan Laperre; Sarah Simmons; Jan Davies; Yi Cui; Thor Wagner; Tanner Clark; Sarah J Smit; Rod Parker; Thomas Gallagher; Emily Timm; Louisa F Ludwig-Begall; Nicolas Macia; Cyrus Mackie; Karen Hope; Ken Page; Susan Reader; Peter Faris; Oliver Jolois; Alpa Patel; Jean-Luc Lemyre; Vanessa Molly-Simard; Kamonthip Homdayjanakul; Sarah R Tritsch; Constance Wielick; Mark Mayo; Rebecca Malott; Jean-Francois Willaert; Hans Nauwynck; Loréne Dams; Simon De Jaeger; Lei Liao; Mervin Zhao; Steven Chu; John Conly; May C Chu. 2020. "Addressing Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Decontamination: Methylene Blue and Light Inactivates SARS-CoV-2 on N95 Respirators and Masks with Maintenance of Integrity and Fit." , no. : 1.

Other
Published: 09 September 2020
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In the context of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, reuse of surgical masks and filtering facepiece respirators has been recommended. Their reuse necessitates procedures to inactivate contaminating human respiratory and oral pathogens. We previously demonstrated decontamination of masks and respirators contaminated with an infectious SARS-CoV-2 surrogate via ultraviolet germicidal irradiation, vaporised hydrogen peroxide, and use of dry heat. Here, we show that these same methods efficiently inactivate a more resistant, non-enveloped oral virus; decontamination of infectious murine norovirus-contaminated masks and respirators reduced viral titres by over four orders of magnitude on mask or respirator coupons.

ACS Style

Constance Wielick; Louisa Fiona Ludwig-Begall; Lorène Dams; Ravo Michele Razafimahefa; Pierre-Francois Demeuldre; Aurore Napp; Jan Laperre; Eric Haubruge; Etienne Thiry. The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporised hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with an infectious norovirus. 2020, 1 .

AMA Style

Constance Wielick, Louisa Fiona Ludwig-Begall, Lorène Dams, Ravo Michele Razafimahefa, Pierre-Francois Demeuldre, Aurore Napp, Jan Laperre, Eric Haubruge, Etienne Thiry. The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporised hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with an infectious norovirus. . 2020; ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Constance Wielick; Louisa Fiona Ludwig-Begall; Lorène Dams; Ravo Michele Razafimahefa; Pierre-Francois Demeuldre; Aurore Napp; Jan Laperre; Eric Haubruge; Etienne Thiry. 2020. "The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporised hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with an infectious norovirus." , no. : 1.

Journal article
Published: 31 August 2020 in Journal of Hospital Infection
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Summary Background In the context of the ongoing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, the supply of personal protective equipment remains under severe strain. To address this issue, re-use of surgical face masks and filtering facepiece respirators has been recommended; prior decontamination is paramount to their re-use. Aim We aim to provide information on the effects of three decontamination procedures on porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV)-contaminated masks and respirators, presenting a stable model for infectious coronavirus decontamination of these typically single-use-only products. Methods Surgical masks and filtering facepiece respirator coupons and straps were inoculated with infectious PRCV and submitted to three decontamination treatments, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, vaporized H2O2, and dry heat treatment. Viruses were recovered from sample materials and viral titres were measured in swine testicle cells. Findings UV irradiation, vaporized H2O2 and dry heat reduced infectious PRCV by more than three orders of magnitude on mask and respirator coupons and rendered it undetectable in all decontamination assays. Conclusion This is the first description of stable disinfection of face masks and filtering facepiece respirators contaminated with an infectious SARS-CoV-2 surrogate using UV irradiation, vaporized H2O2 and dry heat treatment. The three methods permit demonstration of a loss of infectivity by more than three orders of magnitude of an infectious coronavirus in line with the United States Food and Drug Administration policy regarding face masks and respirators. It presents advantages of uncomplicated manipulation and utilization in a BSL2 facility, therefore being easily adaptable to other respirator and mask types.

ACS Style

L.F. Ludwig-Begall; C. Wielick; L. Dams; H. Nauwynck; P-F. Demeuldre; A. Napp; J. Laperre; E. Haubruge; E. Thiry. The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporized hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate virus. Journal of Hospital Infection 2020, 106, 577 -584.

AMA Style

L.F. Ludwig-Begall, C. Wielick, L. Dams, H. Nauwynck, P-F. Demeuldre, A. Napp, J. Laperre, E. Haubruge, E. Thiry. The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporized hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate virus. Journal of Hospital Infection. 2020; 106 (3):577-584.

Chicago/Turabian Style

L.F. Ludwig-Begall; C. Wielick; L. Dams; H. Nauwynck; P-F. Demeuldre; A. Napp; J. Laperre; E. Haubruge; E. Thiry. 2020. "The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporized hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate virus." Journal of Hospital Infection 106, no. 3: 577-584.

Preprint content
Published: 05 June 2020
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Background In the context of the ongoing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, the supply of personal protective equipment remains under severe strain. To address this issue, re-use of surgical face masks and filtering facepiece respirators has been recommended; prior decontamination is paramount to their re-use. Aim We aim to provide information on the effects of three decontamination procedures on porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV)-contaminated masks and respirators, presenting a stable model for infectious coronavirus decontamination of these typically single-use-only products. Methods Surgical masks and filtering facepiece respirator coupons and straps were inoculated with infectious PRCV and submitted to three decontamination treatments, UV irradiation, vaporised H2O2, and dry heat treatment. Viruses were recovered from sample materials and viral titres were measured in swine testicle cells. Findings UV irradiation, vaporised H2O2 and dry heat reduced infectious PRCV by more than three orders of magnitude on mask and respirator coupons and rendered it undetectable in all decontamination assays. Conclusion This is the first description of stable disinfection of face masks and filtering facepiece respirators contaminated with an infectious SARS-CoV-2 surrogate using UV irradiation, vaporised H2O2 and dry heat treatment. The three methods permit demonstration of a loss of infectivity by more than three orders of magnitude of an infectious coronavirus in line with the FDA policy regarding face masks and respirators. It presents advantages of uncomplicated manipulation and utilisation in a BSL2 facility, therefore being easily adaptable to other respirator and mask types.

ACS Style

Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Constance Wielick; Lorène Dams; Hans Nauwynck; Pierre-Francois Demeuldre; Aurore Napp; Jan Laperre; Eric Haubruge; Etienne Thiry. The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporised hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate virus. 2020, 1 .

AMA Style

Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall, Constance Wielick, Lorène Dams, Hans Nauwynck, Pierre-Francois Demeuldre, Aurore Napp, Jan Laperre, Eric Haubruge, Etienne Thiry. The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporised hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate virus. . 2020; ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Constance Wielick; Lorène Dams; Hans Nauwynck; Pierre-Francois Demeuldre; Aurore Napp; Jan Laperre; Eric Haubruge; Etienne Thiry. 2020. "The use of germicidal ultraviolet light, vaporised hydrogen peroxide and dry heat to decontaminate face masks and filtering respirators contaminated with a SARS-CoV-2 surrogate virus." , no. : 1.

Journal article
Published: 29 October 2019 in Viruses
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Feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus associated with fatal disease in progressively infected cats. While testing/removal and vaccination led to a decreased prevalence of FeLV, recently, this decrease has reportedly stagnated in some countries. This study aimed to prospectively determine the prevalence of FeLV viraemia in cats taken to veterinary facilities in 32 European countries. FeLV viral RNA was semiquantitatively detected in saliva, using RT-qPCR as a measure of viraemia. Risk and protective factors were assessed using an online questionnaire to report geographic, demographic, husbandry, FeLV vaccination, and clinical data. The overall prevalence of FeLV viraemia in cats visiting a veterinary facility, of which 10.4% were shelter and rescue cats, was 2.3% (141/6005; 95% CI: 2.0%–2.8%) with the highest prevalences in Portugal, Hungary, and Italy/Malta (5.7%–8.8%). Using multivariate analysis, seven risk factors (Southern Europe, male intact, 1–6 years of age, indoor and outdoor or outdoor-only living, living in a group of ≥5 cats, illness), and three protective factors (Northern Europe, Western Europe, pedigree cats) were identified. Using classification and regression tree (CART) analysis, the origin of cats in Europe, pedigree, and access to outdoors were important predictors of FeLV status. FeLV-infected sick cats shed more viral RNA than FeLV-infected healthy cats, and they suffered more frequently from anaemia, anorexia, and gingivitis/stomatitis than uninfected sick cats. Most cats had never been FeLV-vaccinated; vaccination rates were indirectly associated with the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. In conclusion, we identified countries where FeLV was undetectable, demonstrating that the infection can be eradicated and highlighting those regions where awareness and prevention should be increased.

ACS Style

Nadine Studer; Hans Lutz; Claude Saegerman; Enikö Gönczi; Marina L. Meli; Gianluca Boo; Katrin Hartmann; Margaret J. Hosie; Karin Moestl; Séverine Tasker; Sándor Belák; Albert Lloret; Corine Boucraut-Baralon; Herman F. Egberink; Maria-Grazia Pennisi; Uwe Truyen; Tadeusz Frymus; Etienne Thiry; Fulvio Marsilio; Diane Addie; Manfred Hochleithner; Filip Tkalec; Zsuzsanna Vizi; Anna Brunetti; Boyko Georgiev; Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Flurin Tschuor; Carmel T. Mooney; Catarina Eliasson; Janne Orro; Helle Johansen; Kirsi Juuti; Igor Krampl; Kaspars Kovalenko; Jakov Šengaut; Cristina Sobral; Petra Borska; Simona Kovaříková; Regina Hofmann-Lehmann. Pan-European Study on the Prevalence of the Feline Leukaemia Virus Infection – Reported by the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD Europe). Viruses 2019, 11, 993 .

AMA Style

Nadine Studer, Hans Lutz, Claude Saegerman, Enikö Gönczi, Marina L. Meli, Gianluca Boo, Katrin Hartmann, Margaret J. Hosie, Karin Moestl, Séverine Tasker, Sándor Belák, Albert Lloret, Corine Boucraut-Baralon, Herman F. Egberink, Maria-Grazia Pennisi, Uwe Truyen, Tadeusz Frymus, Etienne Thiry, Fulvio Marsilio, Diane Addie, Manfred Hochleithner, Filip Tkalec, Zsuzsanna Vizi, Anna Brunetti, Boyko Georgiev, Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall, Flurin Tschuor, Carmel T. Mooney, Catarina Eliasson, Janne Orro, Helle Johansen, Kirsi Juuti, Igor Krampl, Kaspars Kovalenko, Jakov Šengaut, Cristina Sobral, Petra Borska, Simona Kovaříková, Regina Hofmann-Lehmann. Pan-European Study on the Prevalence of the Feline Leukaemia Virus Infection – Reported by the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD Europe). Viruses. 2019; 11 (11):993.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Nadine Studer; Hans Lutz; Claude Saegerman; Enikö Gönczi; Marina L. Meli; Gianluca Boo; Katrin Hartmann; Margaret J. Hosie; Karin Moestl; Séverine Tasker; Sándor Belák; Albert Lloret; Corine Boucraut-Baralon; Herman F. Egberink; Maria-Grazia Pennisi; Uwe Truyen; Tadeusz Frymus; Etienne Thiry; Fulvio Marsilio; Diane Addie; Manfred Hochleithner; Filip Tkalec; Zsuzsanna Vizi; Anna Brunetti; Boyko Georgiev; Louisa F. Ludwig-Begall; Flurin Tschuor; Carmel T. Mooney; Catarina Eliasson; Janne Orro; Helle Johansen; Kirsi Juuti; Igor Krampl; Kaspars Kovalenko; Jakov Šengaut; Cristina Sobral; Petra Borska; Simona Kovaříková; Regina Hofmann-Lehmann. 2019. "Pan-European Study on the Prevalence of the Feline Leukaemia Virus Infection – Reported by the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD Europe)." Viruses 11, no. 11: 993.

Review
Published: 15 August 2019 in Viruses
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Starting in 2006, bluetongue virus serotype 8 (BTV8) was responsible for a major epizootic in Western and Northern Europe. The magnitude and spread of the disease were surprisingly high and the control of BTV improved significantly with the marketing of BTV8 inactivated vaccines in 2008. During late summer of 2011, a first cluster of reduced milk yield, fever, and diarrhoea was reported in the Netherlands. Congenital malformations appeared in March 2012 and Schmallenberg virus (SBV) was identified, becoming one of the very few orthobunyaviruses distributed in Europe. At the start of both epizootics, little was known about the pathogenesis and epidemiology of these viruses in the European context and most assumptions were extrapolated based on other related viruses and/or other regions of the World. Standardized and repeatable models potentially mimicking clinical signs observed in the field are required to study the pathogenesis of these infections, and to clarify their ability to cross the placental barrier. This review presents some of the latest experimental designs for infectious disease challenges with BTV or SBV. Infectious doses, routes of infection, inoculum preparation, and origin are discussed. Particular emphasis is given to the placental crossing associated with these two viruses.

ACS Style

Ludovic Martinelle; Fabiana Dal Pozzo; Etienne Thiry; Kris De Clercq; Claude Saegerman. Reliable and Standardized Animal Models to Study the Pathogenesis of Bluetongue and Schmallenberg Viruses in Ruminant Natural Host Species with Special Emphasis on Placental Crossing. Viruses 2019, 11, 753 .

AMA Style

Ludovic Martinelle, Fabiana Dal Pozzo, Etienne Thiry, Kris De Clercq, Claude Saegerman. Reliable and Standardized Animal Models to Study the Pathogenesis of Bluetongue and Schmallenberg Viruses in Ruminant Natural Host Species with Special Emphasis on Placental Crossing. Viruses. 2019; 11 (8):753.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ludovic Martinelle; Fabiana Dal Pozzo; Etienne Thiry; Kris De Clercq; Claude Saegerman. 2019. "Reliable and Standardized Animal Models to Study the Pathogenesis of Bluetongue and Schmallenberg Viruses in Ruminant Natural Host Species with Special Emphasis on Placental Crossing." Viruses 11, no. 8: 753.

Journal article
Published: 24 June 2019 in Transboundary and Emerging Diseases
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Human noroviruses are recognized as the leading worldwide cause of sporadic and epidemic viral gastroenteritis, causing morbidity and mortality in impoverished developing countries and engendering enormous economic losses in developed countries. Transmitted faecal-orally, either via person-to-person contact, or by consumption of contaminated foods or water, norovirus outbreaks are often reported in institutional settings or in the context of communal dining. Bivalve molluscs, which accumulate noroviruses via filter feeding and are often eaten raw or insufficiently cooked, are a common food vehicle implicated in gastroenteritis outbreaks. The involvement of bivalve molluscs in norovirus outbreaks and epidemiology over the past two decades are reviewed. The authors describe how their physiology of filter feeding can render them concentrated vehicles of norovirus contamination in polluted environments and how high viral loads persist in molluscs even after application of depuration practices and typical food preparation steps. The global prevalence of noroviruses in bivalve molluscs as detected by different monitoring efforts is determined and the various methods currently utilized for norovirus extraction and detection from bivalve matrices described. An overview of gastroenteritis outbreaks affirmatively associated with norovirus-contaminated bivalve molluscs as reported in the past 18 years is also provided. Strategies for risk reduction in shellfish contamination and subsequent human infection are discussed.

ACS Style

Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Louisa F. Ludwig‐Begall; Etienne Thiry. Cockles and mussels, alive, alive, oh —The role of bivalve molluscs as transmission vehicles for human norovirus infections. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2019, 67, 9 -25.

AMA Style

Ravo M. Razafimahefa, Louisa F. Ludwig‐Begall, Etienne Thiry. Cockles and mussels, alive, alive, oh —The role of bivalve molluscs as transmission vehicles for human norovirus infections. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. 2019; 67 (S2):9-25.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ravo M. Razafimahefa; Louisa F. Ludwig‐Begall; Etienne Thiry. 2019. "Cockles and mussels, alive, alive, oh —The role of bivalve molluscs as transmission vehicles for human norovirus infections." Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 67, no. S2: 9-25.

Review
Published: 28 March 2019 in Transboundary and Emerging Diseases
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Control of African swine fever (ASF) in countries in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa (ECSA) is particularly complex owing to the presence of all three known epidemiological cycles of maintenance of the virus, namely an ancient sylvatic cycle involving the natural hosts and vectors of the disease as well as domestic cycles with and without involvement of natural vectors. While the situation is well documented in some of the countries, for others very little information is available. In spite of the unfavourable ASF situation, the pig population in the sub‐region has grown exponentially in recent decades and is likely to continue to grow in response to rapid urban growth resulting in increasing demand for animal protein by populations that are no longer engaged in livestock production. Better management of ASF will be essential to permit the pig sector to reach its full potential as a supplier of high quality protein and a source of income to improve livelihoods and create wealth. No vaccine is currently available and it is likely that, for the near future, the sub‐region will continue to rely on the implementation of preventive measures, based on the epidemiology of the disease, to avoid both the devastating losses that outbreaks can cause and the risk the sub‐region poses to other parts of Africa and the world. The current situation in the ECSA sub‐region is reviewed and gaps in knowledge are identified in order to support ongoing strategy development for managing ASF in endemic areas. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

ACS Style

Léopold K. Mulumba‐Mfumu; Claude Saegerman; Linda K. Dixon; Kapanga C. Madimba; Eric Kazadi; Ndeji T. Mukalakata; Chris A. L. Oura; Erika Chenais; Charles Masembe; Karl Ståhl; Etienne Thiry; Mary Louise Penrith. African swine fever: Update on Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2019, 66, 1462 -1480.

AMA Style

Léopold K. Mulumba‐Mfumu, Claude Saegerman, Linda K. Dixon, Kapanga C. Madimba, Eric Kazadi, Ndeji T. Mukalakata, Chris A. L. Oura, Erika Chenais, Charles Masembe, Karl Ståhl, Etienne Thiry, Mary Louise Penrith. African swine fever: Update on Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. 2019; 66 (4):1462-1480.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Léopold K. Mulumba‐Mfumu; Claude Saegerman; Linda K. Dixon; Kapanga C. Madimba; Eric Kazadi; Ndeji T. Mukalakata; Chris A. L. Oura; Erika Chenais; Charles Masembe; Karl Ståhl; Etienne Thiry; Mary Louise Penrith. 2019. "African swine fever: Update on Eastern, Central and Southern Africa." Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 66, no. 4: 1462-1480.