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Dr. Mohammad Heidarienejad
Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616, USA

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Research Keywords & Expertise

0 Building Science
0 Indoor Air Quality
0 Building control
0 Computational Fluid Dynamics
0 Building energy simulations

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Building energy and environmental systems
Modeling of the built environment
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Indoor Air Quality

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Journal article
Published: 11 March 2021 in Solar Energy
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Switchable ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) cushions with kinetic shading mechanisms are increasingly being used in building enclosures to dynamically control the transmission of solar and visible light. While buildings with switchable ETFE façades typically utilize simple Rule-Based logic to control their operation, this study uses a novel co-simulation approach to optimize the operation of switchable ETFE façades on two hypothetical office buildings in Chicago, IL. Four seasonally representative simulation days are used to demonstrate the approach. The daily source energy savings potential of the Optimal Control schedule is up to 8.2%, 11.1%, and 25.5% compared to Rule-Based, Always-Dark, and Always-Bright control strategies, respectively.

ACS Style

Afshin Faramarzi; Brent Stephens; Mohammad Heidarinejad. Optimal control of switchable ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) cushions for building façades. Solar Energy 2021, 218, 180 -194.

AMA Style

Afshin Faramarzi, Brent Stephens, Mohammad Heidarinejad. Optimal control of switchable ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) cushions for building façades. Solar Energy. 2021; 218 ():180-194.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Afshin Faramarzi; Brent Stephens; Mohammad Heidarinejad. 2021. "Optimal control of switchable ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) cushions for building façades." Solar Energy 218, no. : 180-194.

Research article
Published: 27 July 2020 in Building Simulation
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Enclosed parking garages require mechanical ventilation fans to dilute concentrations of pollutants emitted from vehicles, which contributes to energy use and peak electricity demand. This study develops and applies a simulation framework combining multi-zone airflow and contaminant transport modeling, fan affinity laws, and realistic assumptions for vehicle traffic patterns and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions to improve our ability to predict the impacts of various ventilation control strategies on indoor air quality and fan energy use in parking garages. The simulation approach is validated using measured data from a parking garage case study and then applied to investigate fan energy use, peak power demand, and resulting CO concentrations for four different ventilation control strategies in a model underground parking garage under a variety of assumptions for model inputs. The four ventilation control strategies evaluated include one simplistic schedule (i.e., Always-On) and three demand-based strategies in which fan speed is a function of CO concentrations in the spaces, including Linear-Demand Control Ventilation (DCV), Standardized Variable Flow (SVF), and a simple On-Off strategy. The estimated annual average fan energy consumption was consistently lowest with the Linear-DCV strategy, resulting in average (± standard deviation) energy savings across all modeled scenarios of 843%±0.4%, 72.8%±3.6%, and 97.9%±0.1% compared to SVF, On-Off, and Always-On strategies, respectively. The utility of the framework described herein is that it can be used to model energy and indoor air quality impacts of other parking garage configurations and control scenarios.

ACS Style

Afshin Faramarzi; Jongki Lee; Brent Stephens; Mohammad Heidarinejad. Assessing ventilation control strategies in underground parking garages. Building Simulation 2020, 14, 701 -720.

AMA Style

Afshin Faramarzi, Jongki Lee, Brent Stephens, Mohammad Heidarinejad. Assessing ventilation control strategies in underground parking garages. Building Simulation. 2020; 14 (3):701-720.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Afshin Faramarzi; Jongki Lee; Brent Stephens; Mohammad Heidarinejad. 2020. "Assessing ventilation control strategies in underground parking garages." Building Simulation 14, no. 3: 701-720.

Journal article
Published: 01 July 2020 in Journal of Management in Engineering
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This work was motivated by the premise that next-generation smart city systems will be enabled by widespread adoption of sensing and communication technologies deeply embedded within the physical urban domain. These technological advances (e.g., sensing, processing, and data transmission) are what makes smart city digital twins possible. This paper explores approaches and challenges in architecting and the operation of smart city digital twins. A smart city digital twin architecture is proposed that supports semantic knowledge representation and reasoning, working side by side with machine learning formalisms, to provide complementary and supportive roles in the collection and processing of data, identification of events, and automated decision-making. The semantic and machine learning sides of the proposed architecture are exercised on a problem involving simplified analysis of energy usage in buildings located in the Chicago Metropolitan Area.

ACS Style

Mark Austin; Parastoo Delgoshaei; Maria Coelho; Mohammad Heidarinejad. Architecting Smart City Digital Twins: Combined Semantic Model and Machine Learning Approach. Journal of Management in Engineering 2020, 36, 04020026 .

AMA Style

Mark Austin, Parastoo Delgoshaei, Maria Coelho, Mohammad Heidarinejad. Architecting Smart City Digital Twins: Combined Semantic Model and Machine Learning Approach. Journal of Management in Engineering. 2020; 36 (4):04020026.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mark Austin; Parastoo Delgoshaei; Maria Coelho; Mohammad Heidarinejad. 2020. "Architecting Smart City Digital Twins: Combined Semantic Model and Machine Learning Approach." Journal of Management in Engineering 36, no. 4: 04020026.

Journal article
Published: 13 March 2020 in Expert Systems with Applications
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This paper presents a nature-inspired metaheuristic called Marine Predators Algorithm (MPA) and its application in engineering. The main inspiration of MPA is the widespread foraging strategy namely Lévy and Brownian movements in ocean predators along with optimal encounter rate policy in biological interaction between predator and prey. MPA follows the rules that naturally govern in optimal foraging strategy and encounters rate policy between predator and prey in marine ecosystems. This paper evaluates the MPA's performance on twenty-nine test functions, test suite of CEC-BC-2017, randomly generated landscape, three engineering benchmarks, and two real-world engineering design problems in the areas of ventilation and building energy performance. MPA is compared with three classes of existing optimization methods, including (1) GA and PSO as the most well-studied metaheuristics, (2) GSA, CS and SSA as almost recently developed algorithms and (3) CMA-ES, SHADE and LSHADE-cnEpSin as high performance optimizers and winners of IEEE CEC competition. Among all methods, MPA gained the second rank and demonstrated very competitive results compared to LSHADE-cnEpSin as the best performing method and one of the winners of CEC 2017 competition. The statistical post hoc analysis revealed that MPA can be nominated as a high-performance optimizer and is a significantly superior algorithm than GA, PSO, GSA, CS, SSA and CMA-ES while its performance is statistically similar to SHADE and LSHADE-cnEpSin. The source code is publicly available at: https://github.com/afshinfaramarzi/Marine-Predators-Algorithm, http://built-envi.com/portfolio/marine-predators-algorithm/, https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/74578-marine-predators-algorithm-mpa, and http://www.alimirjalili.com/MPA.html.

ACS Style

Afshin Faramarzi; Mohammad Heidarinejad; SeyedAli Mirjalili; Amir H. Gandomi. Marine Predators Algorithm: A nature-inspired metaheuristic. Expert Systems with Applications 2020, 152, 113377 .

AMA Style

Afshin Faramarzi, Mohammad Heidarinejad, SeyedAli Mirjalili, Amir H. Gandomi. Marine Predators Algorithm: A nature-inspired metaheuristic. Expert Systems with Applications. 2020; 152 ():113377.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Afshin Faramarzi; Mohammad Heidarinejad; SeyedAli Mirjalili; Amir H. Gandomi. 2020. "Marine Predators Algorithm: A nature-inspired metaheuristic." Expert Systems with Applications 152, no. : 113377.

Journal article
Published: 01 November 2019 in Applied Energy
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ACS Style

Narjes Abbasabadi; Mehdi Ashayeri; Rahman Azari; Brent Stephens; Mohammad Heidarinejad. An integrated data-driven framework for urban energy use modeling (UEUM). Applied Energy 2019, 253, 1 .

AMA Style

Narjes Abbasabadi, Mehdi Ashayeri, Rahman Azari, Brent Stephens, Mohammad Heidarinejad. An integrated data-driven framework for urban energy use modeling (UEUM). Applied Energy. 2019; 253 ():1.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Narjes Abbasabadi; Mehdi Ashayeri; Rahman Azari; Brent Stephens; Mohammad Heidarinejad. 2019. "An integrated data-driven framework for urban energy use modeling (UEUM)." Applied Energy 253, no. : 1.

Journal article
Published: 18 September 2019 in Sensors
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This work demonstrates an open-source hardware and software platform for monitoring the performance of buildings, called Elemental, that is designed to provide data on indoor environmental quality, energy usage, HVAC operation, and other factors to its users. It combines: (i) custom printed circuit boards (PCBs) with RFM69 frequency shift keying (FSK) radio frequency (RF) transceivers for wireless sensors, control nodes, and USB gateway, (ii) a Raspberry Pi 3B with custom firmware acting as either a centralized or distributed backhaul, and (iii) a custom dockerized application for the backend called Brood that serves as the director software managing message brokering via Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol using VerneMQ, database storage using InfluxDB, and data visualization using Grafana. The platform is built around the idea of a private, secure, and open technology for the built environment. Among its many applications, the platform allows occupants to investigate anomalies in energy usage, environmental quality, and thermal performance via a comprehensive dashboard with rich querying capabilities. It also includes multiple frontends to view and analyze building activity data, which can be used directly in building controls or to provide recommendations on how to increase operational efficiency or improve operating conditions. Here, we demonstrate three distinct applications of the Elemental platform, including: (1) deployment in a research lab for long-term data collection and automated analysis, (2) use as a full-home energy and environmental monitoring solution, and (3) fault and anomaly detection and diagnostics of individual building systems at the zone-level. Through these applications we demonstrate that the platform allows easy and virtually unlimited datalogging, monitoring, and analysis of real-time sensor data with low setup costs. Low-power sensor nodes placed in abundance in a building can also provide precise and immediate fault-detection, allowing for tuning equipment for more efficient operation and faster maintenance during the lifetime of the building.

ACS Style

Akram Syed Ali; Christopher Coté; Mohammad Heidarinejad; Brent Stephens. Elemental: An Open-Source Wireless Hardware and Software Platform for Building Energy and Indoor Environmental Monitoring and Control. Sensors 2019, 19, 4017 .

AMA Style

Akram Syed Ali, Christopher Coté, Mohammad Heidarinejad, Brent Stephens. Elemental: An Open-Source Wireless Hardware and Software Platform for Building Energy and Indoor Environmental Monitoring and Control. Sensors. 2019; 19 (18):4017.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Akram Syed Ali; Christopher Coté; Mohammad Heidarinejad; Brent Stephens. 2019. "Elemental: An Open-Source Wireless Hardware and Software Platform for Building Energy and Indoor Environmental Monitoring and Control." Sensors 19, no. 18: 4017.

Journal article
Published: 09 September 2019 in Sustainability
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This paper considered an actual neighborhood to quantify impacts of the local urban microclimate on energy consumption for an academic building in College Park, USA. Specifically, this study accounted for solar irradiances on building and ground surfaces to evaluate impacts of the local convective heat transfer coefficient (CHTC), infiltration rate, and coefficient of performance (COP) on building cooling systems. Using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) allowed for the calculation of local temperature and velocity values and implementation of the local variables in the building energy simulation (BES) model. The discrepancies among the cases with different CHTCs showed slight influence of CHTCs on sensible load, in which the maximum variations existed 1.95% for sensible cooling load and 3.82% for sensible heating load. The COP analyses indicated windward wall and upstream roof are the best locations for the installation of these cooling systems. This study used adjusted infiltration rate values that take into account the local temperature and velocity. The results indicated the annual cooling and heating energy increased by 2.67% and decreased by 2.18%, respectively.

ACS Style

Jiying Liu; Mohammad Heidarinejad; Saber Khoshdel Nikkho; Nicholas W. Mattise; Jelena Srebric. Quantifying Impacts of Urban Microclimate on a Building Energy Consumption—A Case Study. Sustainability 2019, 11, 4921 .

AMA Style

Jiying Liu, Mohammad Heidarinejad, Saber Khoshdel Nikkho, Nicholas W. Mattise, Jelena Srebric. Quantifying Impacts of Urban Microclimate on a Building Energy Consumption—A Case Study. Sustainability. 2019; 11 (18):4921.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jiying Liu; Mohammad Heidarinejad; Saber Khoshdel Nikkho; Nicholas W. Mattise; Jelena Srebric. 2019. "Quantifying Impacts of Urban Microclimate on a Building Energy Consumption—A Case Study." Sustainability 11, no. 18: 4921.

Report
Published: 23 May 2019 in Science
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Reducing human reliance on energy-inefficient cooling methods such as air conditioning would have a large impact on the global energy landscape. By a process of complete delignification and densification of wood, we developed a structural material with a mechanical strength of 404.3 megapascals, more than eight times that of natural wood. The cellulose nanofibers in our engineered material backscatter solar radiation and emit strongly in mid-infrared wavelengths, resulting in continuous subambient cooling during both day and night. We model the potential impact of our cooling wood and find energy savings between 20 and 60%, which is most pronounced in hot and dry climates.

ACS Style

Tian Li; Yao Zhai; Shuaiming He; Wentao Gan; Zhiyuan Wei; Mohammad Heidarinejad; Daniel Dalgo; Ruiyu Mi; Xinpeng Zhao; Jianwei Song; Jiaqi Dai; Chaoji Chen; Ablimit Aili; Azhar Vellore; Ashlie Martini; Ronggui Yang; Jelena Srebric; Xiaobo Yin; Liangbing Hu. A radiative cooling structural material. Science 2019, 364, 760 -763.

AMA Style

Tian Li, Yao Zhai, Shuaiming He, Wentao Gan, Zhiyuan Wei, Mohammad Heidarinejad, Daniel Dalgo, Ruiyu Mi, Xinpeng Zhao, Jianwei Song, Jiaqi Dai, Chaoji Chen, Ablimit Aili, Azhar Vellore, Ashlie Martini, Ronggui Yang, Jelena Srebric, Xiaobo Yin, Liangbing Hu. A radiative cooling structural material. Science. 2019; 364 (6442):760-763.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tian Li; Yao Zhai; Shuaiming He; Wentao Gan; Zhiyuan Wei; Mohammad Heidarinejad; Daniel Dalgo; Ruiyu Mi; Xinpeng Zhao; Jianwei Song; Jiaqi Dai; Chaoji Chen; Ablimit Aili; Azhar Vellore; Ashlie Martini; Ronggui Yang; Jelena Srebric; Xiaobo Yin; Liangbing Hu. 2019. "A radiative cooling structural material." Science 364, no. 6442: 760-763.

Journal article
Published: 24 April 2019 in Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology
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The objective of this study is to assess tracheobronchial flow features with the cartilaginous rings during a light exercising. Tracheobronchial is part of human's body airway system that carries oxygen-rich air to human's lungs as well as takes carbon dioxide out of the human's lungs. Consequently, evaluation of the flow structures in tracheobronchial is important to support diagnosis of tracheal disorders. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) allows evaluating effectiveness of tracheal cartilage rings in human body under different configurations. This study utilizes Large Eddy Simulation (LES) to model an anatomically-based human large conducting airway model with and without cartilaginous rings at the breathing conditions at Reynolds number of 5,176 in trachea region. It is observed that small recirculating areas shaped between rings cavities. While these recirculating areas are decaying, similar to periodic 2D-hills, the cartilaginous rings contribute to the construction of a vortical flow structure in the main flow. The separated vortically-shaped zone creates a wake in the flow and passes inside of the next ring cavity and disturb its boundary layer. At last, the small recirculation flow impinges onto tracheal wall. The outcome of this impinge flow is a latitudinal rotating flow perpendicular to the main flow in a cavity between the two cartilaginous rings crest which appear and disappear within a hundredth of a second. Kelvin-Helmholtz instability is observed in trachea caused by shear flow created behind of interaction between these flow structures near to tracheal wavy wall and main flow. A comparison of the results between a smooth wall model named simplified model and a rough wall model named modified model shows that these structures do not exist in simplified model, which is common in modeling tracheobronchial flow. This study proposes to consider macro surface roughness to account for the separating and rotating instantaneous flow structures. Finally, solving trachea airflow with its cartilages can become one of major issues in measuring the validity and capability of solving flow in developing types of sub-grid scale models as a turbulence studies benchmark.

ACS Style

Ghassem Heidarinejad; Mohammad Hossein Roozbahani; Mohammad Heidarinejad. Studying airflow structures in periodic cylindrical hills of human tracheal cartilaginous rings. Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology 2019, 266, 103 -114.

AMA Style

Ghassem Heidarinejad, Mohammad Hossein Roozbahani, Mohammad Heidarinejad. Studying airflow structures in periodic cylindrical hills of human tracheal cartilaginous rings. Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology. 2019; 266 ():103-114.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ghassem Heidarinejad; Mohammad Hossein Roozbahani; Mohammad Heidarinejad. 2019. "Studying airflow structures in periodic cylindrical hills of human tracheal cartilaginous rings." Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology 266, no. : 103-114.

Journal article
Published: 01 July 2018 in Sustainable Cities and Society
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Accurate CFD simulations of urban airflow are of significant importance for a large variety of environmental studies and associated building energy consumption. As a relatively fast and reliable turbulence model compared to Standard k-ε turbulence model (SKE) and Large Eddy Simulation (LES), the improved Zero-equation (ZEQ) turbulence model has gained attention to simulate outdoor airflow and contaminant dispersion. This study evaluates the performance of four commonly used ZEQ turbulence models applied to flow around urban environments and analyze their sensitivity and uncertainty for different airflow configurations. These configurations entail airflow around (1) an isolated building, (2) regular blocks, and (3) building complexes. The results show that average computational time for these three turbulence modeling approaches (ZEQ: SKE: LES) scaled approximately to a 1:5:30 ratio, which demonstrated the computational competitiveness of ZEQ as a fast turbulence model for prediction of airflow in urban areas. The comparisons between simulation results and experimental data show that previously developed ZEQ models are slightly faster than the SKE turbulence model and have a slightly inferior performance compared to LES. In summary, the performance of the specified ZEQ turbulence model indicates that this turbulence model is a good fit for outdoor airflow studies.

ACS Style

Jiying Liu; Mohammad Heidarinejad; George Pitchurov; Linhua Zhang; Jelena Srebric. An extensive comparison of modified zero-equation, standard k-ε, and LES models in predicting urban airflow. Sustainable Cities and Society 2018, 40, 28 -43.

AMA Style

Jiying Liu, Mohammad Heidarinejad, George Pitchurov, Linhua Zhang, Jelena Srebric. An extensive comparison of modified zero-equation, standard k-ε, and LES models in predicting urban airflow. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2018; 40 ():28-43.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jiying Liu; Mohammad Heidarinejad; George Pitchurov; Linhua Zhang; Jelena Srebric. 2018. "An extensive comparison of modified zero-equation, standard k-ε, and LES models in predicting urban airflow." Sustainable Cities and Society 40, no. : 28-43.

Journal article
Published: 01 July 2017 in Energy Conversion and Management
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ACS Style

Mohammad Heidarinejad; Jose G. Cedeño-Laurent; Joshua R. Wentz; Nicholas M. Rekstad; John D. Spengler; Jelena Srebric. Actual building energy use patterns and their implications for predictive modeling. Energy Conversion and Management 2017, 144, 164 -180.

AMA Style

Mohammad Heidarinejad, Jose G. Cedeño-Laurent, Joshua R. Wentz, Nicholas M. Rekstad, John D. Spengler, Jelena Srebric. Actual building energy use patterns and their implications for predictive modeling. Energy Conversion and Management. 2017; 144 ():164-180.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mohammad Heidarinejad; Jose G. Cedeño-Laurent; Joshua R. Wentz; Nicholas M. Rekstad; John D. Spengler; Jelena Srebric. 2017. "Actual building energy use patterns and their implications for predictive modeling." Energy Conversion and Management 144, no. : 164-180.

Journal article
Published: 01 October 2016 in Sustainable Cities and Society
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ACS Style

Mohammad Heidarinejad; Stefan Gracik; Mostapha Sadeghipour Roudsari; Saber Khoshdel Nikkho; JiyingLiu(刘吉营); Kai Liu; George Pitchorov; Jelena Srebric. Influence of building surface solar irradiance on environmental temperatures in urban neighborhoods. Sustainable Cities and Society 2016, 26, 186 -202.

AMA Style

Mohammad Heidarinejad, Stefan Gracik, Mostapha Sadeghipour Roudsari, Saber Khoshdel Nikkho, JiyingLiu(刘吉营), Kai Liu, George Pitchorov, Jelena Srebric. Influence of building surface solar irradiance on environmental temperatures in urban neighborhoods. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2016; 26 ():186-202.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mohammad Heidarinejad; Stefan Gracik; Mostapha Sadeghipour Roudsari; Saber Khoshdel Nikkho; JiyingLiu(刘吉营); Kai Liu; George Pitchorov; Jelena Srebric. 2016. "Influence of building surface solar irradiance on environmental temperatures in urban neighborhoods." Sustainable Cities and Society 26, no. : 186-202.

Journal article
Published: 01 November 2015 in Energy and Buildings
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ACS Style

Matthew Dahlhausen; Mohammad Heidarinejad; Jelena Srebric. Building energy retrofits under capital constraints and greenhouse gas pricing scenarios. Energy and Buildings 2015, 107, 407 -416.

AMA Style

Matthew Dahlhausen, Mohammad Heidarinejad, Jelena Srebric. Building energy retrofits under capital constraints and greenhouse gas pricing scenarios. Energy and Buildings. 2015; 107 ():407-416.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Matthew Dahlhausen; Mohammad Heidarinejad; Jelena Srebric. 2015. "Building energy retrofits under capital constraints and greenhouse gas pricing scenarios." Energy and Buildings 107, no. : 407-416.

Journal article
Published: 01 September 2015 in Building and Environment
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ACS Style

Jelena Srebric; Mohammad Heidarinejad; JiyingLiu(刘吉营). Building neighborhood emerging properties and their impacts on multi-scale modeling of building energy and airflows. Building and Environment 2015, 91, 246 -262.

AMA Style

Jelena Srebric, Mohammad Heidarinejad, JiyingLiu(刘吉营). Building neighborhood emerging properties and their impacts on multi-scale modeling of building energy and airflows. Building and Environment. 2015; 91 ():246-262.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jelena Srebric; Mohammad Heidarinejad; JiyingLiu(刘吉营). 2015. "Building neighborhood emerging properties and their impacts on multi-scale modeling of building energy and airflows." Building and Environment 91, no. : 246-262.

Journal article
Published: 01 August 2015 in Building and Environment
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ACS Style

Stefan Gracik; Mohammad Heidarinejad; Jiying Liu; Jelena Srebric. Effect of urban neighborhoods on the performance of building cooling systems. Building and Environment 2015, 90, 15 -29.

AMA Style

Stefan Gracik, Mohammad Heidarinejad, Jiying Liu, Jelena Srebric. Effect of urban neighborhoods on the performance of building cooling systems. Building and Environment. 2015; 90 ():15-29.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stefan Gracik; Mohammad Heidarinejad; Jiying Liu; Jelena Srebric. 2015. "Effect of urban neighborhoods on the performance of building cooling systems." Building and Environment 90, no. : 15-29.

Journal article
Published: 01 December 2014 in Energy and Buildings
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ACS Style

Mohammad Heidarinejad; Matthew Dahlhausen; Sean McMahon; Chris Pyke; Jelena Srebric. Cluster analysis of simulated energy use for LEED certified U.S. office buildings. Energy and Buildings 2014, 85, 86 -97.

AMA Style

Mohammad Heidarinejad, Matthew Dahlhausen, Sean McMahon, Chris Pyke, Jelena Srebric. Cluster analysis of simulated energy use for LEED certified U.S. office buildings. Energy and Buildings. 2014; 85 ():86-97.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mohammad Heidarinejad; Matthew Dahlhausen; Sean McMahon; Chris Pyke; Jelena Srebric. 2014. "Cluster analysis of simulated energy use for LEED certified U.S. office buildings." Energy and Buildings 85, no. : 86-97.