In the last years, the fact of anthropogenic impact on climate change taking place in the world has become indisputable. Both countries and international organizations have taken steps to reduce GHG emissions, move to a low-carbon economy and implement solutions that reduce human impact on the environment. The EU, by intensifying its activities, has also prepared a strategy known as the European Green Deal. In implementing the EGD, it is important to analyze the impact of energy development in energy-intensive sectors of the economy (industry, transport, agriculture, services and other cores) on atmospheric pollution. Energy development is understood as the energy consumption percentage from all its consumption. In the article, complex correlation–regression analysis was implemented, which included not only energy development impact on the CO₂ emissions level (i.e., production-based CO₂ efficiency), but also its impact on economic growth. The research was conducted for the EU euro area countries. It was determined that the strongest positive correlation is to be found in the transport sector, which implies that with an increase in energy consumption in that sector, production-based CO₂ efficiency is increasing. On the other hand, this increment in efficiency was relatively small and was achieved with the rapid growth of the energy consumption. The implemented research confirmed that the transportation sector is the one which is polluting the atmosphere the most with CO₂ emissions in the Eurozone. The results of the implemented research could be used for the formation of targeted measures for the green growth strategy implementation, and also for ECB and EIB to support “green” projects.

In the face of the current energy crisis and the need to implement the objectives of climate and energy policy, it seems necessary to examine energy efficiency. Accordingly, this article aims to assess the energy efficiency of European Union (EU) countries. The assessment is performed using data envelopment analysis (DEA), a non-parametric method of measurement of relative efficiency. Ireland recorded the highest energy efficiency both in 2013 and 2020. The average efficiency of all countries assessed was lower in 2020 than in 2013. The number of fully efficient countries had decreased in 2020 compared to 2013. The differentiation of countries in terms of energy efficiency had increased in 2020. The research made it possible to express the efficiencies of countries using a single indicator applied to establish countries’ rankings. The lowest-ranked states are encouraged to improve their technologies for transforming inputs into outputs following the technologies of the benchmark countries. Moreover, a new approach to defining and measuring energy efficiency is proposed. We define energy efficiency as the ratio of services, goods and/or energy obtained to the energy input. In analysing energy efficiency, we emphasise dynamic perspectives rather than static ones.

The hereby article discusses the issues related to the existing or required support given by the State to enterprises in order to provide them conditions to innovate. Neoclassical economy puts an emphasis to the price mechanism as a decision making effective tool, but enterprises meet many barriers in creating and introducing innovation, like high cost, high risk or lack of demand for innovation. These phenomena tend to inhibit innovation of enterprises. This means that market is not an efficient mechanism for innovation activity of enterprises, and its imperfections provoke the State’s intervention. The goal of the article is to shape the objectives of State’s impact on decisions of innovative enterprises. Research method is the critical literature review and public data on State’s support on business R&D analysis. The research results show State’s support for both – incremental and radical innovation, which proves that innovative activity of enterprises is far from being a spontaneous, market-based process.

Motivation: The idea of EU Energy Union was presented in 2014 as a response to the deepening energy crisis with the main gas supply partner, Russia. In 2015 and in 2017 European Commission presented the state of the Energy Union, which shows progress made since the Energy Union Framework Strategy was adopted. It was planned that in 2016 Energy Union would be fully implemented. The Energy Union is based on the three objectives of EU climate and energy policy: security of supply, sustainability and competitiveness. To reach these objectives the Energy Union focuses on five mutually supportive dimensions: 1) energy security, solidarity and trust; 2) a fully integrated European energy market; 3) energy efficiency contributing to moderation of demand; 4) decarbonising the economy and 5) research, innovation and competitiveness. Aim: The objective of this article is to analyse the current state of the implementation of the first objective of the Energy Union: energy security, solidarity and trust in the context of the energy strategies of selected EU countries. Results: None from the Member States was against the Energy Union project, but each of them understands this term differently. Full implementation of the concept is in contradiction with the energy policies of some Member States, mainly the big players. There are no concrete solutions to the implementation of instruments to enhance energy security.

CEL NAUKOWY: Podstawowym celem artykułu jest przedstawienie wyni­ków badań dotyczących określenia wpływu czynników mikroekonomicznych (energetyki prosumenckiej) na stan bezpieczeństwa energetycznego Polski w kontekście odnawialnych źródeł energii. PROBLEM I METODY BADAWCZE: Zagadnienie bezpieczeństwa ener­getycznego w Polsce jest przedmiotem przede wszystkim debaty w sferze politologicznej. Większość analiz ekonomicznych (ekonomia bezpieczeństwa energetycznego) uwzględnia głównie aspekty makroekonomiczne, pomijając rolę i znaczenie szybko rozwijającego się sektora odnawialnych źródeł energii i przede wszystkim szybko rozwijającej się energetyki rozproszonej (perspek­tywa mikroekonomiczna). W celu sprostania postawionemu problemowi ba­dawczemu wykorzystano metody badawcze uwzględniające analizę literatury przedmiotu, metody statystyki opisowej oraz metody tabelaryczno-opisowe i wykresy wraz z syntezą wniosków. PROCES WYWODU: W pierwszej kolejności przedstawione zostaną wyniki przeglądu debaty na temat definiowania pojęcia bezpieczeństwa energetycz­nego, w drugiej – najważniejsze miary i determinanty tegoż bezpieczeństwa, a w trzeciej – efekty analizy rozwoju energetyki rozproszonej w kontekście od­nawialnych źródła energii jako elementu bezpieczeństwa energetycznego Polski. WYNIKI ANALIZY NAUKOWEJ: Przeprowadzona analiza prowadzi do wniosku, że sektor energetyki rozproszonej stanowi istotny element sektora odnawianych źródeł energii, a przez to może stanowić istotny czynnik bezpie­czeństwa energetycznego Polski. WNIOSKI, INNOWACJE, REKOMENDACJE: Omawiana problematyka jest istotna, nie traci na znaczeniu, a najbliższe lata przyniosą intensyfikację badań w tym obszarze. Wnioski płynące z przeprowadzonych badań adreso­wane są zarówno do politologów, decydentów politycznych, jak i ekonomistów odpowiedzialnych za wdrażanie polityki klimatyczno-energetycznej, w tym sektora odnawialnych źródeł energii.

The main aim of this article is to present the results of the analysis of the EU climate and energy policy goals in selected Member States in the context of their energy policies. The analysis covers the period 2008–2014 and focuses on seven EU Member States: the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, France, Lithuania, Poland and the United Kingdom. Each of the countries is implementing EU climate and energy policy goals, but to varying degrees. The research leads to the conclusion that more and more countries implement energy policy primarily based on national policy, which is not always consistent with the assumptions of the EU’s policy.