Apoptosis is the elimination of functionally non-essential, neoplastic, and infected cells via the mitochondrial pathway or death receptor pathway. The process of apoptosis is highly regulated through membrane channels and apoptogenic proteins. Apoptosis maintains cellular balance within the human body through cell cycle progression. Loss of apoptosis control prolongs cancer cell survival and allows the accumulation of mutations that can promote angiogenesis, promote cell proliferation, disrupt differentiation, and increase invasiveness during tumor progression. The apoptotic pathway has been extensively studied as a potential drug target in cancer treatment. However, the off-target activities of drugs and negative implications have been a matter of concern over the years. Phytochemicals (PCs) have been studied for their efficacy in various cancer cell lines individually and synergistically. The development of nanoparticles (NPs) through green synthesis has added a new dimension to the advancement of plant-based nanomaterials for effective cancer treatment. This review provides a detailed insight into the fundamental molecular pathways of programmed cell death and highlights the role of PCs along with the existing drugs and plant-based NPs in treating cancer by targeting its programmed cell death (PCD) network.

Textile dyes pose a major environmental threat due to their toxicity, persistence in water bodies, and resistance to conventional wastewater treatment. To address this, researchers have explored biological and physicochemical degradation methods, focusing on microbial, photolytic, and nanoparticle-mediated approaches, among others. Microbial degradation depends on fungi, bacteria, yeasts, and algae, utilizing enzymatic pathways involving oxidoreductases like laccases, peroxidases, and azoreductases to breakdown or modify complex dye molecules. Photolytic degradation employs hydroxyl radical generation and electron-hole pair formation, while nanoparticle-mediated degradation utilizes titanium dioxide (TiO₂), zinc oxide (ZnO), and silver (Ag) nanoparticles to enhance dye removal. To improve efficiency, microbial consortia have been developed to enhance decolorization and mineralization, offering a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative to physicochemical methods. Photocatalytic degradation, particularly using TiO₂, harnesses light energy for dye breakdown. Research advancements focus on shifting TiO₂ activation from UV to visible light through doping and composite materials, while optimizing surface area and mesoporosity for better adsorption. Nanoparticle-mediated approaches benefit from a high surface area and rapid adsorption, with ongoing improvements in synthesis, functionalization, and reusability, particularly through magnetic nanoparticle integration. These emerging technologies provide sustainable solutions for dye degradation. The primary aim of this review is to comprehensively evaluate and synthesize current research and advancements in the degradation of azo dyes through microbial methods, photolytic processes, and nanotechnology-based approaches. The review also provides detailed information on salient mechanistic aspects of these methods, efficiencies, advantages, challenges, and potential applications in industrial and environmental contexts.