Fertility variation, defined as a difference in the ability to create progeny (i.e., reproductive success) among individuals, was reviewed using the related available theoretical and practical literature in an attempt to contribute to and improve future studies on the subject. Fertility variation is a useful guide for various purposes such as gene conservation, seed production programs, forest genetic resource (i.e., seed sources) management, other forestry practices (e.g., regeneration), and evolutional and physiological studies. Many papers and proceedings have been published, including both theoretical and practical approaches, on how fertility variation has improved in the last two decades. Large variations in fertility were widely reported among populations within species and among species. We reviewed the literature and combined our diverse knowledge to examine fertility variations and their linkage parameters. Fertility variations and their related parameters (e.g., gene diversity, status number, effective parent number, parental–balance curves) estimated based on reproductive characteristics have been studied for many years using easy and cheap surveys that are used for different purposes in forest sciences. Their importance is increasing and their use is becoming more widespread because of these advantages, leading to improvements in research papers. While many research papers have recently been published on fertility variations and linkage parameters, a review paper has not been published to date. Therefore, a review paper is needed based on a literature survey and unpublished experience, as a guide for future studies.

This research examines the impact of varied acorn yields on the effective population size of Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.) as assessed through the fertility averages of zygotic parents. We selected two distinct populations from the species’ natural habitats based on their good and poor acorn production rates to investigate acorn production, growth attributes, and their interrelationships over three years of production and two years of growth data. Results showed that the population with good acorn production exhibited greater growth attributes and acorn yields compared to the poor acorn production population. Acorn production had lower coefficients of variation compared to growth attributes. Fertility variation in both populations was moderate, with a decrease in the effective number of parents from the population with abundant acorn production to the one with limited acorn production. The presence of mixed seeds from diverse populations had a detrimental impact on fertility variation and related metrics. Nonetheless, this study suggests that regions with limited acorn production still have the potential for natural regeneration due to their larger effective population size when coupled with appropriate forestry practices such as selective acorn harvesting to enhance genetic diversity. These findings emphasize the importance of accounting for fertility variation in the selection and management of seed sources, even within the context of a limited area and three years of data. Further research should be conducted in larger populations and over longer periods to draw more comprehensive conclusions.

OptOrch is a transparent and modular optimization toolkit for forest tree seed orchard (SO) deployment. It implements SO-specific optimal contribution models in AMPL (A Mathematical Programing Language), separating biological assumptions, input data, and numerical solvers. Unlike existing optimal-contribution or mate-allocation software, OptOrch exposes the objective function and constraints directly, allowing breeders to modify SO-specific requirements, including status-number thresholds, proportional contribution bounds, graft availability, pairwise coancestry restrictions, female and male gametic contributions, and external pollen flow. When the declared formulation is supported by the selected solver, solutions can be evaluated using solver-reported feasibility status, objective bounds, and optimality gaps. The algebraic framework also allows alternative formulations to be tested when biological constraints create mixed-integer, nonlinear, or nonconvex instances. We demonstrate OptOrch with simulation-based scenarios involving alternative status-number thresholds and pollen contamination. The framework quantifies gain–diversity trade-offs, evaluates external pollen effects, and compares feasible deployment strategies under realistic biological and operational constraints.

Climate change alters vegetation patterns, pushing subtropical forests further north. These forests play a crucial role for carbon neutrality efforts due to their significant CO₂ assimilation potential. This study investigated CO₂ assimilation rate along with growth, morphological, and physiological traits in 23 half-sib families of Quercus acuta and 26 half-sib families of Q. glauca, two prominent East Asian evergreen broadleaf species. Q. acuta exhibited significantly higher growth rates, with diameter at breast height (DBH) and aboveground biomass exceeding those for Q. glauca by 12.1% and 69.9%, respectively (p < 0.001). Leaf traits, including leaf mass pear area (LMA), leaf nitrogen, and chlorophyll content, were also greater in Q. acuta, showing 24.5%, 45.8%, and 15.6% higher values (p < 0.001). While photosynthetic traits were similar, Q. acuta exhibited a 12.7% higher intrinsic water-use efficiency (_iWUE) (p < 0.01). Among half-sib families, marginal differences were observed in growth traits (p < 0.1), and significant differences in leaf morphology and physiological traits (p < 0.05) were observed. A positive correlation was found between growth and physiological traits associated with the CO₂ assimilation rate in Q. acuta, but not in Q. glauca. These findings highlight the potential of Q. acuta and Q. glauca for supporting future carbon neutrality efforts and provide traits supporting carbon uptake, valuable for selecting tree species with enhanced carbon sequestration potential.