Fusobacterium nucleatum, a gram-negative anaerobic bacterium, has emerged as a significant player in colorectal cancer (CRC) pathogenesis. The bacterium causes a persistent inflammatory reaction in the colorectal mucosa by stimulating the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, creating an environment conducive to cancer progression. F. nucleatum binds to and penetrates epithelial cells through adhesins such as FadA, impairing cell junctions and encouraging epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which is associated with cancer advancement. Additionally, the bacterium modulates the host immune system, suppressing immune cell activity and creating conditions favorable for tumor growth. Its interactions with the gut microbiome contribute to dysbiosis, further influencing carcinogenic pathways. Evidence indicates that F. nucleatum can inflict DNA damage either directly via reactive oxygen species or indirectly by creating a pro-inflammatory environment. Additionally, it triggers oncogenic pathways, especially the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, which promotes tumor cell growth and longevity. Moreover, F. nucleatum alters the tumor microenvironment, impacting cancer cell behavior, metastasis, and therapeutic responses. The purpose of this review is to elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which F. nucleatum contributes to CRC. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the development of targeted therapies and diagnostic strategies for CRC associated with F. nucleatum.

Oxidative stress has been described as one of the main drivers of intracellular damage and metabolic disorders leading to metabolic syndrome, a major health problem worldwide. In particular, free radicals alter lipid metabolism and promote lipid accumulation in the liver, existing in the hepatic facet of metabolic syndrome, the metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). Recent literature has highlighted how nicotine, especially if associated with a high-fat diet, exerts a negative effect on the induction and progression of MASLD by upregulating inflammation and increasing oxidative stress, abdominal fat lipolysis, and hepatic lipogenesis. Moreover, considerable evidence shows the central role of intestinal dysbiosis in the pathogenesis of MASLD and the impact of nicotine-induced oxidative stress on the gut microbiome. This results in an intricate network in which oxidative stress stands at the intersection point between gut microbiome, nicotine, and MASLD. The aim of this review is to delve into the molecular mechanisms linking tobacco smoking and MASLD, focusing on nicotine-induced microbiota modifications and their impact on MASLD development.

Vaccinations are among the most effective medical procedures and have had an incredible impact on almost everyone’s life. One of the populations that can benefit the most from them are elderly people. Unfortunately, in this group, vaccines are less effective than in other groups, due to immunosenescence. The immune system ages like the whole body and becomes less effective in responding to infections and vaccinations. At the same time, immunosenescence also favors an inflammatory microenvironment, which is linked to many conditions typical of the geriatrics population. The microbiota is one of the key actors in modulating the immune response and, in this review, we discuss the current evidence on the role of microbiota in regulating the immune response to vaccines, particularly in elderly people.

Background/Objectives: Liver fibrosis is a progressive consequence of chronic liver injury that can evolve into cirrhosis, liver failure, or hepatocellular carcinoma, representing a major global health burden. Fibrogenesis is driven by hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation, excessive extracellular matrix deposition, and structural disruption of liver tissue, with transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling and inflammatory mediators as central pathways. Current therapies primarily target the underlying causes, which may halt disease progression but rarely reverse established fibrosis. This review aims to outline current and emerging therapeutic strategies for liver fibrosis, informing both clinical practice and future research directions. Methods: A narrative synthesis of preclinical and clinical evidence was conducted, focusing on pharmacological interventions, microbiota-directed strategies, and innovative modalities under investigation for antifibrotic activity. Results: Bile acids, including ursodeoxycholic acid and derivatives, modulate HSC activity and autophagy. Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonists, such as obeticholic acid, reduce fibrosis but are limited by adverse effects. Fatty acid synthase inhibitors, exemplified by denifanstat, show promise in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH). Additional strategies include renin–angiotensin system inhibitors, omega-3 fatty acids, and agents targeting the gut–liver axis. Microbiota-directed interventions—probiotics, prebiotics, symbiotics, antibiotics (e.g., rifaximin), and fecal microbiota transplantation—are emerging as potential modulators of barrier integrity, inflammation, and fibrogenesis, though larger clinical trials are required. Reliable non-invasive biomarkers and innovative trial designs, including adaptive platforms, are essential to improve patient selection and efficiently evaluate multiple agents and combinations. Conclusions: Novel modalities such as immunotherapy, gene editing, and multi-targeted therapies hold additional potential for fibrosis reversal. Continued translational efforts are critical to establish safe, effective, and accessible treatments for patients with liver fibrosis.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most frequent among primary liver tumors (90%) and one of the main causes of cancer-related death. It develops usually in a chronically inflamed environment, ranging from compensatory parenchymal regeneration to fibrosis and cirrhosis: carcinogenesis can potentially happen in each of these stages. Inflammation determined by chronic viral infection (hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and hepatitis delta viruses) represents an important risk factor for HCC etiology through both viral direct damage and immune-related mechanisms. The deregulation of the physiological liver immunological network determined by viral infection can lead to carcinogenesis. The recent introduction of immunotherapy as the gold-standard first-line treatment for HCC highlights the role of the immune system and inflammation as a double-edged weapon in both HCC carcinogenesis and treatment. In this review we highlight how the inflammation is the key for the hepatocarcinogenesis in viral, alcohol and metabolic liver diseases.

Refeeding syndrome (RS) is defined as the spectrum of metabolic and biochemical disorders related to rapid nutritional replenishment after a prolonged period of fasting. It is caused by an abrupt shift in electrolytes and fluid among intra- and extracellular compartments, leading to metabolic disturbances like hypophosphatemia, vitamin deficiency, and fluid overload. RS often remains underdiagnosed due to variability in definition and diagnostic criteria adopted, overlapping clinical features with other complications and low awareness among clinicians. Critically ill individuals, particularly those admitted to intensive care units (ICUs), represent a cohort with peculiar features that may heighten RS risk due to their baseline frailty, frequent undernutrition, and the metabolic stress of acute illness. However, studies specifically conducted in ICU settings have yielded conflicting results regarding incidence rates, prognostic impact, and specific risk factors. Despite these differences, all evidence consistently highlights RS as a frequent and serious complication in critically ill patients. Early detection and prevention are essential, relying on prompt nutritional assessment at ICU admission, careful monitoring of serum electrolytes before and during refeeding, and a conservative caloric approach to nutrient reintroduction, alongside supportive therapy and electrolyte supplementation if RS manifestations occur. Clinicians should be aware of the significant prevalence and potential severity of RS in critically ill patients, along with the ongoing challenges related to its early recognition, prevention, and optimal nutritional management. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on the incidence, prognostic impact, risk factors, clinical manifestations, and nutritional management of RS in critically ill patients while highlighting existing evidence gaps and key areas requiring clinical attention.