To ensure the better production and sustainable management of natural resources, a chemometric investigation was conducted to examine the effect of cooperative and harvesting periods on the crop yields and chemical compositions of Salvia rosmarinus Spenn essential oils in the Oriental region of Morocco. The samples were collected from three cooperatives over nine time periods from January 2018 to April 2019. The chemical composition of Salvia rosmarinus Spenn essential oils was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The data from this study were processed by multivariate analyses, including principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). The disc diffusion technique and a determination of the minimal inhibitory concentration were performed to study the antibacterial properties of the oils. Statistical analysis showed that the cooperative and harvest period have a significant effect on yields. The highest yield of essential oil was recorded in April 2019 at cooperative C1. The PCA and the HCA results were divided into two groups: Group A for the summer season and group B for the winter season. The samples collected during summer were characterized by a high amount of 1,8-cineole component and a high yield of essential oil, whereas the samples collected during winter were qualified by a high amount of α-pinene component and a low yield of essential oil. The antibacterial activity of Salvia rosmarinus Spenn essential oils showed that Mycobacterium smegmatis ATCC23857 and Bacillus subtilis ATCC 23857 are the most susceptible strains, stopping growth at 1/500 (v/v). The least susceptible strain is Escherichia coli ATCC25922, with an MIC value corresponding to 1/250 (v/v). The findings of this study could have a positive economic impact on the exploitation of rosemary in the Oriental region, especially during the best harvest periods, as they indicate how to obtain the best yields of oils richest in 1,8-cineole and α-pinene chemotypes.

Mosquitoes represent one of the most important vectors and are responsible for the transmission of many arboviruses that affect human and animal health. The chemical method using synthetic insecticides disturbs the environmental system and promotes the appearance of resistant insect species. Therefore, this study investigated the insecticidal effect of some binary monoterpene combinations (1,8 cineole + α-pinene and carvone + R (+)-pulegone) using a mixture design approach. The fumigant toxicity was evaluated against Culex pipiens female adults using glass jars. The results show that the toxicity varies according to the proportions of each compound. Indeed, Mixture 1 (1,8-cineole + α-pinene) displayed a strong toxic effect (51.00 ± 0.86% after 24 h and 100.00 ± 0.70% after 48 h) when the pure compounds were tested at 0.25/0.75 proportions of 1,8-cineole and α-pinene, respectively. Nevertheless, the equal proportion (0.5/0.5) of carvone and R (+)-pulegone in Mixture 2 exhibited a toxic effect of 54.35 ± 0.75% after 24 h and 89.96 ± 0.14% after 48 h, respectively. For Mixture 1, the maximum area of mortality that the proposed model indicated was obtained between 0/1 and 0.25/0.75, while the maximum area of mortality in the case of Mixture 2 was obtained between 0.25/0.75 and 0.75/0.25. Moreover, the maximum possible values of mortality that could be achieved by the validated model were found to be 51.44% (after 24 h) and 100.24% (after 48 h) for Mixture 1 and 54.67% (after 24 h) and 89.99% (after 48 h) for Mixture 2. It can be said that all purev molecules tested through the binary mixtures acted together, which enhanced the insecticide’s effectiveness. These findings are very promising, as the chemical insecticide (deltamethrin) killed only 19.29 ± 0.01% and 34.05 ± 1.01% of the female adults after 24 h and 48 h, respectively. Thus, the findings of our research could help with the development of botanical insecticides that might contribute to management programs for controlling vectors of important diseases.

Essential oils (EOs) have gained significant attention for their biopesticidal properties in pest management. This study investigates the insecticidal potential of EOs extracted from the aerial parts of three indigenous Artemisia species— Artemisia absinthium , Artemisia arborescens , and Artemisia campestris —collected from various provenances in Morocco. The EOs were tested individually and in combination against Culex pipiens ( C. pipiens ) larvae to explore potential synergistic interactions using a mixture design methodology. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) and gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC‐FID) analyses revealed quantitative and qualitative variations in the chemical composition of the oils. The primary constituents of A. absinthium were identified as thujone (32.20 % ± 2.65 % ), camphor (19.95 % ± 2.64 % ), and chamazulene (19.58 % ± 2.33 % ). In A. arborescens , thujone (52.05 % ± 3.84 % ), camphor (10.71 % ± 3.08 % ), and eucalyptol (4.79 % ± 1.53 % ) were the major components, while A. campestris comprised camphor (18.98 % ± 2.65 % ), car‐3‐en‐5‐one (11.25 % ± 2.33 % ), and thujone (6.63 % ± 1.67 % ). When applied individually, all three EOs exhibited significant larvicidal activity against C. pipiens larvae, with A. arborescens showing the highest efficacy (LC ₅₀ 11.11 μ g/mL (5.45 ± 22.62)) compared to A. absinthium (LC ₅₀ : 16.98 μ g/mL (6.73 ± 27.39)) and A. campestris (LC ₅₀ : 19.07 μ g/mL (13.57 ± 23.38)). In mixture experiments, the mixture design outcomes reveal that the ternary formulation comprising 58% A. absinthium , 26% A. arborescens , and 16% A. campestris emerged as the most effective blend, achieving complete larval eradication. This study highlights the potential of Artemisia EO combinations as a sustainable and effective alternative for managing mosquito vectors of disease.

The Asteraceae family is well known for its toxic and repellent activity against mosquitoes. In this study, essential oils (EOs) extracted from the aerial parts of both wild and cultivated Artemisia campestris L. plants were tested for larvicidal activity against Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae), a pest mosquito widely suspected to be the vector responsible for West Nile virus transmission. The research aims at comparing the chemical composition and insecticidal activity of cultivated and wild A. campestris EOs. The EOs were obtained by hydrodistillation from the plants aerial parts and were analyzed using GC-MS. Furthermore, the larviciding experiment was carried out following the standard WHO protocol. The result showed that wild and cultivated plant EOs differed only quantitatively, while the qualitative profile revealed a nearly identical chemical composition. Camphor (18.98), car-3-en-5-one (11.25), thujone (6.36), chrysanthenone (6.24), filifolone (4.56), and borneol (3.56) dominate the wild plant EO. Camphor (21.01), car-3-en-5-one (17), chrysanthenone (10.15), filifolone (7.90), borneol (3.38), and thujone (3.08) are the major compounds of the cultivated plant. Cultivation did not affect the EO production since the yield of the cultivated plant was 0.5±0.1 and 0.6±0.2 for the wild plant. The cultivated A. campestris EO had the highest insecticidal activity (LC₅₀=9.79µg/ml), and no significant difference was noticed between wild and cultivated A. campestris EO in terms of LC₉₀. These findings could pave the way for a new method of producing biocides to control major disease vectors and offer a potential alternative for pest control.

The use of combined essential oils (EOs) is a new technique that can improve their preservative effects while minimizing their sensory impact in foods. The aim of this study was to determine the chemical profile of three essential oils (EOs) extracted from Lavandula stoechas L. (Ls), Thymus zygis L. (Tz), and Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh (Ec) and to evaluate their synergistic antibacterial activity for optimal inhibition against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus using an augmented Simplex centroid mixing scheme. The essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed via gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Anti-bacterial potency was evaluated by disk diffusion. Chemical analysis revealed the main compounds in Lavandula stoechas (Ls) essential oil: camphor (36.15%), followed by fenchone (16.57%) and Z-8-hydroxy linalool (8.28%). The Thymus zygis (Tz) essential oil is dominated by δ-terpineol (27.64%), δ-3-carene (15.7%), and thymol (14.17%). In contrast, the Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Ec) essential oil contains mainly 1,8-cineole (43.61%), γ-terpinene (11.71%), and α-terpineol (10.58%). The optimal mixture is the binary association of 40% E. camaldulensis EO and 60% T. zygis EO, which provides an effective inhibition diameter (ID) of 13.37 mm to inhibit S. aureus. Furthermore, the formulation of 27% and 73% EOs of E. camaldulensis and T. zygis, respectively, corresponds to the mixture required to achieve the optimum inhibition diameter (ID = 11.55 mm) against E. coli. In addition, the mixture of 29% EO of E. camaldulensis and 71% EO of T. zygis is the optimum mixture to inhibit B. subtilis, with an inhibition diameter of 12.31 mm. These findings highlight the potency of antibacterial formulations of these essential oils and suggest that they might be used as substitutes for conventional drugs to prevent the development of bacteria responsible for serious infections and food spoilage.

Graphical abstract Abstract Essential oils (EOs) are bioactive chemicals derived from the extraction of aromatic and medicinal plants. They have many benefits, including antioxidant and antifungal activity. The present study aims to evaluate the phytochemical composition of Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Mast., Mentha pulegium L., and Thymus zygis L. with biological evaluation and its molecular docking study. The three species studied were collected from the Taza region in north-eastern Morocco. The chemical composition of the EOs was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, and the antioxidant activity was evaluated by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl analysis. The antifungal activity of the studied EOs was tested against apple rot fungi at different concentrations in vitro and in vivo against Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum. Fruit quality parameters and molecular docking of biological activities were also evaluated. The results of this study showed that the EOs of T. articulata (Vahl) Mast. were rich in monoterpenic hydrocarbons (57.71%), whereas M. pulegium L. and T. zygis L. were rich in oxygenated monoterpenes (95.54%). In this study, the EO of T. zygis L. was found to have the highest antioxidant potency (IC₅₀ = 7.60 ± 0.48 µg/mL), and the efficacy of the EO of this plant against the two pathogens tested is greater than that of the other two plants. Molecular docking results showed important activity, including ligand binding affinity to the active site of the receptor of each fungal strain, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic bonds, and interactions for antifungal and antioxidant activities.