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Diet sustainability analyses are stronger when they incorporate multiple food systems domains, disciplines, scales, and time/space dimensions into a common modeling framework. Few analyses do this well: there are large gaps in food systems data in many regions, accessing private and some public data can be difficult, and there are analytical challenges, such as creating linkages across datasets and using complex analytical methods. This article summarizes key data sources across multiple domains of food system sustainability (nutrition, economic, environment) and describes methods and tools for integrating them into a common analytic framework. Our focus is the United States because of the large number of publicly available and highly disaggregated datasets. Thematically, we focus on linkages that exist between environmental and economic datasets to nutrition, which can be used to estimate the cost and agricultural resource use of food waste, interrelationships between healthy eating and climate impacts, diets optimized for cost, nutrition, and environmental impacts, and others. The limitations of these approaches and data sources are described next. By enhancing data integration across these fields, researchers can be better equipped to promote policy for sustainable diets.
Zach Conrad; Alexandra Stern; David Love; Meredith Salesses; Ashley Cyril; Acree McDowell; Nicole Blackstone. Data Integration for Diet Sustainability Analyses. Sustainability 2021, 13, 8082 .
AMA StyleZach Conrad, Alexandra Stern, David Love, Meredith Salesses, Ashley Cyril, Acree McDowell, Nicole Blackstone. Data Integration for Diet Sustainability Analyses. Sustainability. 2021; 13 (14):8082.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; Alexandra Stern; David Love; Meredith Salesses; Ashley Cyril; Acree McDowell; Nicole Blackstone. 2021. "Data Integration for Diet Sustainability Analyses." Sustainability 13, no. 14: 8082.
Objectives: To evaluate the association between diet quality and cost for foods purchased for consumption at home and away from home. Design: Cross-sectional analysis. Multivariable linear regression models evaluated the association between diet quality and cost for all food, food at home, and food away from home. Setting: Daily food intake data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2005-2016). Food prices were derived using data from multiple, publicly available databases. Diet quality was assessed using the Healthy Eating Index-2015 and the Alternative Healthy Eating Index-2010. Participants: 30,564 individuals ≥20 y with complete and reliable dietary data. Results: Mean per capita daily diet cost was $14.19 (95% CI: $13.91-14.48), including $6.92 ($6.73-7.10) for food consumed at home and $7.28 ($7.05-7.50) for food consumed away from home. Diet quality was higher for food at home compared to food away from home (P<0.001). Higher diet quality was associated with higher food costs overall, at home, and away from home (P<0.001 for all comparisons). Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that higher diet quality is associated with higher costs for all food, food consumed at home, and food consumed away from home. This research provides policymakers, public health professionals, and clinicians with information needed to support healthy eating habits. These findings are particularly relevant to contemporary health and economic concerns that have worsened because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Zach Conrad; Sarah Reinhardt; Rebecca Boehm; Acree McDowell. Higher diet quality is associated with higher diet costs when eating at home and away from home: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005-2016. Public Health Nutrition 2021, 1 -29.
AMA StyleZach Conrad, Sarah Reinhardt, Rebecca Boehm, Acree McDowell. Higher diet quality is associated with higher diet costs when eating at home and away from home: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005-2016. Public Health Nutrition. 2021; ():1-29.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; Sarah Reinhardt; Rebecca Boehm; Acree McDowell. 2021. "Higher diet quality is associated with higher diet costs when eating at home and away from home: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2005-2016." Public Health Nutrition , no. : 1-29.
Evidence links parent-offspring weight status, but few studies have evaluated whether markers of socioeconomic status moderate this relation. The 2014 Family Life, Activity, Sun, Health, and Eating study was used to assess intergenerational weight status in a national sample of parent-teen dyads. Multivariable logistic regression models assessed the relation between parent-teen weight status, controlling for teen and parent dietary factors, physical activity, demographic factors, and socioeconomic factors. Models with interaction assessed moderation by household food security status and participation in federal assistance programs. In fully adjusted models, sons were 2.66 (95% CI: 1.56, 4.55) times more likely to have overweight/obesity if their mother had overweight/obesity, and daughters were 3.35 (95% CI: 1.91, 5.86) times more likely. This relation was stronger in mother-son pairs in households with lower food security. These findings provide important new information that can be used to inform nutritional counseling efforts and educational programs that support families with socioeconomic disadvantage.
Zach Conrad; Daniel P Hatfield; Erin Hennessy; Elizabeth Maneval; Esther Ty; Christopher L Pankey. Evaluating Moderation of Parent-Teen Overweight/Obesity Relation by Household Socioeconomic Status. Current Developments in Nutrition 2021, 5, nzab030 .
AMA StyleZach Conrad, Daniel P Hatfield, Erin Hennessy, Elizabeth Maneval, Esther Ty, Christopher L Pankey. Evaluating Moderation of Parent-Teen Overweight/Obesity Relation by Household Socioeconomic Status. Current Developments in Nutrition. 2021; 5 (4):nzab030.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; Daniel P Hatfield; Erin Hennessy; Elizabeth Maneval; Esther Ty; Christopher L Pankey. 2021. "Evaluating Moderation of Parent-Teen Overweight/Obesity Relation by Household Socioeconomic Status." Current Developments in Nutrition 5, no. 4: nzab030.
The COVID-19 pandemic has heightened the importance of affordable nutrition. Fruits and vegetables are among the most commonly wasted food items, representing waste of key nutrients that are needed to maintain health and support the immune system. Food waste also represents substantial environmental burden and more than one-quarter of consumer food spending. Practical strategies are urgently needed to help nutritionists support their clients in reducing food waste, which can help improve diet quality, reduce environmental impacts, and increase financial flexibility during this critical time. Fortunately, recent research has demonstrated that efforts to reduce waste of fruits and vegetables at home, as well as meat and seafood away from home, will be particularly impactful. A number of strategies exist to help consumers reduce their food waste while making affordable food choices, and nutritionists are well poised to communicate these strategies to their clients and communities of practice.
Zach Conrad; Sarah L. Reinhardt; Acree McDowell; Julie Nance. Reducing Food Waste and Saving Money. Nutrition Today 2021, 56, 33 -38.
AMA StyleZach Conrad, Sarah L. Reinhardt, Acree McDowell, Julie Nance. Reducing Food Waste and Saving Money. Nutrition Today. 2021; 56 (1):33-38.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; Sarah L. Reinhardt; Acree McDowell; Julie Nance. 2021. "Reducing Food Waste and Saving Money." Nutrition Today 56, no. 1: 33-38.
Background There is an urgent need to assess the linkages between diet patterns and environmental sustainability in order to meet global targets for reducing premature mortality and improving sustainable management of natural resources. This study fills an important research gap by evaluating the relationship between incremental differences in diet quality and multiple environmental burdens, while also accounting for the separate contributions of retail losses, inedible portions, and consumer waste. Methods Cross sectional, nationally-representative data on food intake in the United States were acquired from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2005–2016), and were linked with nationally-representative data on food loss and waste from published literature. Survey-weighted procedures estimated daily per capita food retail loss, food waste, inedible portions, and consumed food, and were summed to represent Total Food Demand. Diet quality was measured using the Healthy Eating Index-2015 and the Alternative Healthy Eating Index-2010. Data on food intake, loss, and waste were inputted into the US Foodprint Model to estimate the amount of agricultural land, fertilizer nutrients, pesticides, and irrigation water used to produce food. Results This study included dietary data from 50,014 individuals aged ≥2 y. Higher diet quality (HEI-2015 and AHEI-2010) was associated with greater per capita Total Food Demand, as well as greater retail loss, inedible portions, consumer waste, and consumed food (P < 0.001 for all comparisons). Consumed food accounted for 56–74% of agricultural resource use (land, fertilizer nutrients, pesticides, and irrigation water), retail loss accounted for 4–6%, inedible portions accounted for 2–15%, and consumer waste accounted for 20–23%. Higher diet quality was associated with lower use of agricultural land, but the relationship to other agricultural resources was dependent on the tool used to measure diet quality (HEI-2015 vs. AHEI-2010). Conclusions Over one-quarter of the agricultural inputs used to produce Total Food Demand were attributable to edible food that was not consumed. Importantly, this study also demonstrates that the relationship between diet quality and environmental sustainability depends on how diet quality is measured. These findings have implications for the development of sustainable dietary guidelines, which requires balancing population-level nutritional needs with the environmental impacts of food choices.
Zach Conrad; Nicole Tichenor Blackstone; Eric D. Roy. Healthy diets can create environmental trade-offs, depending on how diet quality is measured. Nutrition Journal 2020, 19, 1 -15.
AMA StyleZach Conrad, Nicole Tichenor Blackstone, Eric D. Roy. Healthy diets can create environmental trade-offs, depending on how diet quality is measured. Nutrition Journal. 2020; 19 (1):1-15.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; Nicole Tichenor Blackstone; Eric D. Roy. 2020. "Healthy diets can create environmental trade-offs, depending on how diet quality is measured." Nutrition Journal 19, no. 1: 1-15.
Emerging research demonstrates unexpected relationships between food waste, nutrition, and environmental sustainability that should be considered when developing waste reduction strategies. In this narrative review, we synthesize these linkages and the evidence related to drivers of food waste and reduction strategies at the consumer level in the United States. Higher diet quality is associated with greater food waste, which results in significant quantities of wasted resources (e.g., energy, fertilizer) and greenhouse gas emissions. Food waste also represents waste of micronutrients that could otherwise theoretically fill nutritional gaps for millions of people. To make progress on these multiple fronts simultaneously, nutrition professionals must expand beyond their traditional purview, into more interdisciplinary arenas that make connections with food waste and environmental sustainability.
Zach Conrad; Nicole Tichenor Blackstone. Identifying the links between consumer food waste, nutrition, and environmental sustainability: a narrative review. Nutrition Reviews 2020, 79, 301 -314.
AMA StyleZach Conrad, Nicole Tichenor Blackstone. Identifying the links between consumer food waste, nutrition, and environmental sustainability: a narrative review. Nutrition Reviews. 2020; 79 (3):301-314.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; Nicole Tichenor Blackstone. 2020. "Identifying the links between consumer food waste, nutrition, and environmental sustainability: a narrative review." Nutrition Reviews 79, no. 3: 301-314.
The aim of this study was to explore United States (U.S.) seafood consumption patterns, food sourcing, expenditures, and geography of consumption. We analyzed seafood intake and food sourcing using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) cycles 2007–2008 to 2015–2016 for US adults ≥19 years old (n = 26,743 total respondents; n = 4957 respondents consumed seafood in the past 24 h). Seafood expenditures were extrapolated by combining NHANES with three other public datasets. U.S. adults consumed 63% of seafood (by weight) at home. The top sources of seafood (by weight) were food retail (56%), restaurants (31%), and caught by the respondent or someone they know (5%). Sixty-five percent of consumer expenditures for seafood were at restaurants and other “away from home” sources while 35% were at retail and other “at home” sources. Slightly less than half of overall U.S. food expenditures are “away from home,” which is much lower than for seafood, suggesting that consumers have very different spending habits for seafood than for an aggregate of all foods.
David C. Love; Frank Asche; Zach Conrad; Ruth Young; Jamie Harding; Elizabeth M. Nussbaumer; Andrew L. Thorne-Lyman; Roni Neff. Food Sources and Expenditures for Seafood in the United States. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1 .
AMA StyleDavid C. Love, Frank Asche, Zach Conrad, Ruth Young, Jamie Harding, Elizabeth M. Nussbaumer, Andrew L. Thorne-Lyman, Roni Neff. Food Sources and Expenditures for Seafood in the United States. Nutrients. 2020; 12 (6):1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleDavid C. Love; Frank Asche; Zach Conrad; Ruth Young; Jamie Harding; Elizabeth M. Nussbaumer; Andrew L. Thorne-Lyman; Roni Neff. 2020. "Food Sources and Expenditures for Seafood in the United States." Nutrients 12, no. 6: 1.
Background Consumer food waste in the United States represents substantial amounts of wasted nutrients, as well as needless environmental impact from wasted agricultural inputs, energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions. Efforts to reduce food waste at the consumer level are urgently needed to address the most prominent nutrition and environmental sustainability issues we now face. Importantly, individuals report that saving money is a salient motivator for reducing food waste, yet contemporary evidence on the consumer cost of wasted food is lacking. The objectives of this study are to 1) estimate the daily per capita cost of food wasted, inedible, and consumed 2) at home and away from home, and 3) by food group. Methods This study utilizes cross-sectional, nationally-representative data on food intake from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2001–2016), linked with nationally representative data on food waste from published literature, as well as data on food prices and food price inflation from multiple publicly-available sources. Survey-weighted procedures estimated daily per capita expenditure on food waste for 39,758 adults aged ≥20 y. Results Total daily per capita food expenditure was $13.27, representing 27% wasted, 14% inedible, and 59% consumed. The greatest daily food waste expenditures were observed for meat and seafood purchased for consumption outside of the home ($0.94, 95% CI: $0.90–0.99), and fruits and vegetables purchased for consumption in the home ($0.68, $0.63–0.73). Conclusions The most cost-effective ways to reduce food waste at the consumer level are to focus waste reduction efforts on meat and seafood purchased for consumption outside of the home and fruits and vegetables purchased for consumption in the home. A number of strategies are available to help consumers reduce their food waste, which can increase their financial flexibility to purchase more healthy foods while simultaneously reducing environmental impact.
Zach Conrad. Daily cost of consumer food wasted, inedible, and consumed in the United States, 2001–2016. Nutrition Journal 2020, 19, 35 -9.
AMA StyleZach Conrad. Daily cost of consumer food wasted, inedible, and consumed in the United States, 2001–2016. Nutrition Journal. 2020; 19 (1):35-9.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad. 2020. "Daily cost of consumer food wasted, inedible, and consumed in the United States, 2001–2016." Nutrition Journal 19, no. 1: 35-9.
Food is wasted at various points in the US food system, but the greatest amount of food waste occurs at the consumer level. Emerging research now shows a connection between consumer food waste, healthy diets, and environmental impacts, with implications for food security and hunger. In the United States, the average consumer wastes nearly 1 lb of food every day—approximately one-quarter of edible food purchased. Those who consume healthier diets waste more food than people who consume diets that are less healthy. This food waste accounts for vast amounts of wasted cropland, irrigation water, fertilizers, pesticides, and energy, as well as greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental impacts. These inefficiencies can reduce agricultural productivity and undermine efforts to feed an expanding global population and reduce food insecurity in the United States and globally. Nutrition professionals can help move consumers toward healthier diets and reduce food waste simultaneously.
Zach Conrad. Food Waste, Healthy Diets, and Environmental Sustainability. Nutrition Today 2020, 55, 5 -10.
AMA StyleZach Conrad. Food Waste, Healthy Diets, and Environmental Sustainability. Nutrition Today. 2020; 55 (1):5-10.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad. 2020. "Food Waste, Healthy Diets, and Environmental Sustainability." Nutrition Today 55, no. 1: 5-10.
Background Federal food assistance programs target low-income and nutritionally vulnerable Americans, with the dual goals of reducing food insecurity and improving diet quality. Individuals on limited food budgets may face constraints on their ability to purchase healthy foods when their prices increase, which could mitigate the intended impact of federal feeding programs. To better understand the effect of food price changes on healthy food purchases, we focus on eggs, which are rich in many important nutrients and can be a healthy part of a wide range of cultural food menus. Objective We use a laboratory-based grocery store experiment (n = 80) to examine the difference in price elasticity of eggs between individuals participating in food assistance programs and those not participating in these programs. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03296878. Methods Subjects completed several food purchasing trials, as well as questionnaires that assessed demographic, psychosocial, and other factors. Mixed linear regression models were used to assess the relationship between food price changes and food purchases (price elasticity). Results No difference in price elasticity was observed between groups, but subjects in both groups decreased their egg purchases by 6.9–8.6% for every 10% increase in egg price. For every 10% increase in the price of all nonegg foods, egg purchases increased by 3.3% among federal food assistance program participants but not nonparticipants, and purchases for foods such as lean meats, low-fat dairy, fruits, vegetables, and whole grains decreased by up to 14% among both groups. Conclusions Efforts to emphasize healthy eating strategies for individuals on limited budgets will be especially important during times of food price increases. Additional research is needed to estimate the price elasticities of other food groups among individuals participating in federal food assistance programs.
Zach Conrad; LuAnn K Johnson; Lisa Jahns; James N Roemmich. Food Price Elasticity by Status of Participation in Federal Food Assistance Programs: A Laboratory-Based Grocery Store Study. Current Developments in Nutrition 2019, 3, 1 .
AMA StyleZach Conrad, LuAnn K Johnson, Lisa Jahns, James N Roemmich. Food Price Elasticity by Status of Participation in Federal Food Assistance Programs: A Laboratory-Based Grocery Store Study. Current Developments in Nutrition. 2019; 3 (9):1.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; LuAnn K Johnson; Lisa Jahns; James N Roemmich. 2019. "Food Price Elasticity by Status of Participation in Federal Food Assistance Programs: A Laboratory-Based Grocery Store Study." Current Developments in Nutrition 3, no. 9: 1.
Efforts to promote health through improved diet and nutrition demand an appreciation of the nutritional ecology that accounts for the intersection of agriculture, food systems, health, disease and a changing environment. The complexity and implications of this ecology is exemplified by current trends and efforts to address nutrition-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs), most prominently type 2 diabetes. The global prevalence of type 2 diabetes continues to rise unabated. Of particular concern is how to address the unhealthy dietary patterns that are contributing to this pandemic in a changing environment. A multi- disciplinary approach is required that will engage those communities that comprise the continuum of effort from research to translation and implementation of evidence-informed interventions, programs and policies. Using the prevention of type 2 diabetes by increasing fruit and vegetable consumption as an exemplar, we argue that the ability to effect positive change in this and other persistent nutrition-related problems can be achieved by moving away from siloed approaches that limit the integration of key components of the diet–health continuum. Ultimately the impact of preventing type 2 diabetes via increased fruit and vegetable consumption will depend on how the entire diet changes, not just fruits and vegetables. In addition, the rapidly changing physical environment that will confront our food production system going forward will also shape the interventions that are possible. Nonetheless, the proposed “team science” approach that accounts for all the elements of the nutrition ecology will better position us to achieve public health goals through safe and sustainable food systems.
John Finley; Lindsay Jaacks; Christian J Peters; Donald R Ort; Ashley M Aimone; Zach Conrad; Daniel J Raiten. Perspective: Understanding the Intersection of Climate/Environmental Change, Health, Agriculture, and Improved Nutrition – A Case Study: Type 2 Diabetes. Advances in Nutrition: An International Review Journal 2019, 10, 731 -738.
AMA StyleJohn Finley, Lindsay Jaacks, Christian J Peters, Donald R Ort, Ashley M Aimone, Zach Conrad, Daniel J Raiten. Perspective: Understanding the Intersection of Climate/Environmental Change, Health, Agriculture, and Improved Nutrition – A Case Study: Type 2 Diabetes. Advances in Nutrition: An International Review Journal. 2019; 10 (5):731-738.
Chicago/Turabian StyleJohn Finley; Lindsay Jaacks; Christian J Peters; Donald R Ort; Ashley M Aimone; Zach Conrad; Daniel J Raiten. 2019. "Perspective: Understanding the Intersection of Climate/Environmental Change, Health, Agriculture, and Improved Nutrition – A Case Study: Type 2 Diabetes." Advances in Nutrition: An International Review Journal 10, no. 5: 731-738.
The Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015–2020 (DGA) provides recommendations for consuming a specific amount and variety of vegetables, but no studies have assessed the relationship between DGA-recommended vegetable variety and risk of mortality. We prospectively assessed the relationship between vegetable amount and variety and the risk of mortality using nationally-representative survey data (n = 29,133). Hazard ratios were estimated using survey-weighted, multivariate, Cox-proportional hazards models. Mean follow-up time was 6.5 years (12.8 years maximum). Total deaths from all causes were 2861, which included 829 deaths from cardiometabolic disease (556 coronary heart disease, 170 stroke, and 103 diabetes). Compared to individuals who reported consuming the greatest amount of vegetables daily, those with the least intake had a 78% greater risk of mortality from all causes (HR: 1.78, 95% CI: 1.29–2.47), a 68% greater risk of death from cardiovascular disease (1.68, 1.08–2.62), and an 80% greater risk of death from coronary heart disease (1.80, 1.09–2.08). No relationships were observed between vegetable variety and risk of all-cause or cause-specific mortality. Greater vegetable amount, but not variety, was associated with a reduced risk of mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and coronary heart disease. Additional large-scale longitudinal studies with repeated measures of dietary exposure are needed.
Zach Conrad; Jessica Thomson; Lisa Jahns. Prospective Analysis of Vegetable Amount and Variety on the Risk of All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality among US Adults, 1999–2011. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1377 .
AMA StyleZach Conrad, Jessica Thomson, Lisa Jahns. Prospective Analysis of Vegetable Amount and Variety on the Risk of All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality among US Adults, 1999–2011. Nutrients. 2018; 10 (10):1377.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; Jessica Thomson; Lisa Jahns. 2018. "Prospective Analysis of Vegetable Amount and Variety on the Risk of All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality among US Adults, 1999–2011." Nutrients 10, no. 10: 1377.
Although the purpose of federal dietary guidance is to improve eating habits, few studies have described awareness of guidance and concurrent diet quality. The objective of the current study was to examine the prevalence of individuals who reported hearing of dietary guidance icons and to describe the association between having heard of the icons and diet quality. This study was a cross-sectional survey. Participants (n=23,343) were from the National Health and Nutrition Examination—What We Eat in America survey 2005–2014 cycles. Awareness of the Food Guide Pyramid, MyPyramid, or MyPlate icons by sociodemographic characteristics and diet quality were measured using Healthy Eating Index (HEI) scores derived from 24-hour recall data. Global Wald tests were used to test for differences in awareness of the icons within sociodemographic groups. Total HEI scores were calculated using the population-ratio method. Z-scores were used to test differences in HEI total scores between those with knowledge of the icons and those who responded negatively. In all cycles, those with less than a high school diploma were the least likely to report having heard of the icons (P<0.001). In every wave except 2011 to 2012, participants with low or marginal food security status were less likely to report affirmatively (P<0.001), and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) participants and SNAP-eligible nonparticipants were least likely to report having heard of the icons (P<0.001) except for 2005 to 2006. HEI scores were higher among those who had heard of MyPyramid in 2007-2012 (P<0.05) and MyPlate in 2013-2014 (P<0.001) compared with those who had not heard of the icon. Recognition of federal dietary guidance icons was associated with higher diet quality recently, but the cross-sectional nature of the data precludes conclusions of causality. Further research is needed to identify barriers and promoters for translating awareness of the federal dietary guidance icons into healthful food purchasing and food consumption decisions.
Lisa Jahns; Zach Conrad; LuAnn K. Johnson; Susan K. Raatz; Sibylle Kranz. Recognition of Federal Dietary Guidance Icons Is Associated with Greater Diet Quality. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 2018, 118, 2120 -2127.
AMA StyleLisa Jahns, Zach Conrad, LuAnn K. Johnson, Susan K. Raatz, Sibylle Kranz. Recognition of Federal Dietary Guidance Icons Is Associated with Greater Diet Quality. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2018; 118 (11):2120-2127.
Chicago/Turabian StyleLisa Jahns; Zach Conrad; LuAnn K. Johnson; Susan K. Raatz; Sibylle Kranz. 2018. "Recognition of Federal Dietary Guidance Icons Is Associated with Greater Diet Quality." Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 118, no. 11: 2120-2127.
BACKGROUND High-oleic (HO) seed oils are being introduced as replacements for trans fatty acid (TFA)–containing fats and oils. Negative health effects associated with TFAs led to their removal from the US Generally Recognized As Safe list. HO oils formulated for use in food production may result in changes in fatty acid intake at population levels. Objectives The purposes of this study were to 1) identify major food sources of soybean oil (SO) and canola oil (CO), 2) estimate effects of replacing SO and CO with HO varieties on fatty acid intake overall and by age and sex strata, and 3) compare predicted intakes with the Dietary Reference Intakes and Adequate Intakes (AIs) for the essential fatty acids (EFAs) α-linolenic acid (ALA) and linoleic acid (LA). Design Food and nutrient intakes from NHANES waves 2007–2008, 2009–2010, 2011–2012, and 2013–2014 in 21,029 individuals aged ≥20 y were used to model dietary changes. We estimated the intake of fatty acid with the replacement of HO-SO and HO-CO for commodity SO and CO at 10%, 25%, and 50% and evaluated the potential for meeting the AI at these levels. RESULTS Each modeling scenario decreased saturated fatty acids (SFAs), although intakes remained greater than recommended for all age and sex groups. Models of all levels increased the intake of total monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), especially oleic acid, and decreased the intake of total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly LA and ALA. Replacement of traditional with HO oils at 25–50% places specific adult age and sex groups at risk of not meeting the AI for LA and ALA. Conclusions The replacement of traditional oils with HO varieties will increase MUFA intake and reduce both SFA and PUFA intakes, including EFAs, and may place specific age and sex groups at risk of inadequate LA and ALA intake.
Susan K Raatz; Zach Conrad; Lisa Jahns; Martha A Belury; Matthew J Picklo. Modeled replacement of traditional soybean and canola oil with high-oleic varieties increases monounsaturated fatty acid and reduces both saturated fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in the US adult population. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2018, 108, 594 -602.
AMA StyleSusan K Raatz, Zach Conrad, Lisa Jahns, Martha A Belury, Matthew J Picklo. Modeled replacement of traditional soybean and canola oil with high-oleic varieties increases monounsaturated fatty acid and reduces both saturated fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in the US adult population. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2018; 108 (3):594-602.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSusan K Raatz; Zach Conrad; Lisa Jahns; Martha A Belury; Matthew J Picklo. 2018. "Modeled replacement of traditional soybean and canola oil with high-oleic varieties increases monounsaturated fatty acid and reduces both saturated fatty acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in the US adult population." The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 108, no. 3: 594-602.
The 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) provides specific intake recommendations for vegetable variety and amount in order to protect against chronic disease. However, to the best of our knowledge, no studies have examined the link between DGA recommended vegetable variety and cardiometabolic disease. To address this research gap, our aim was to estimate the relationship between vegetable variety, vegetable amount, and prevalent cardiometabolic disease subtypes, and to assess potential determinants of vegetable variety. Data on food intake and reported cardiometabolic disease status were acquired for 38,981 adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1999-2014). Vegetable variety was measured using a modified dietary diversity index that was adjusted for the potential confounding effects of vegetable amount. Temporal trends in vegetable variety and amount were assessed using univariate linear regression models. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to estimate the relationship between vegetable variety and prevalent disease, and between vegetable amount and prevalent disease. Multivariate ordered logistic regression models were used to assess the relationship between vegetable variety and explanatory variables. Overall, vegetable variety decreased (P = 0.035) from 1999 to 2014, but vegetable amount did not (P = 0.864). Intake of starchy vegetables decreased (P < 0.001), and intake of dark green vegetables increased (P < 0.001) over this 16-year period, but no trends were observed for other subgroups. An inverse linear relationship was observed between vegetable variety and prevalent coronary heart disease (P-trend = 0.032) but not other prevalent diseases; and between vegetable amount and coronary heart disease (P-trend = 0.026) but not other prevalent diseases. Individuals who reported consuming dark green vegetables had lower odds of having cardiovascular disease (0.86, 95% CI: 0.74-0.99) and coronary heart disease (0.78, 0.65-0.94) compared to individuals who reported not consuming any green vegetables. Living with a domestic partner was associated with greater vegetable variety (P = < 0.001), and currently smoking was associated with lower vegetable variety (P = < 0.001). Vegetable variety and amount were positively associated (P < 0.001). Vegetable variety and amount were inversely associated with prevalent coronary heart disease. Vegetable variety was strongly associated with vegetable amount, likely mediated by reduced habituation and increased liking. Increasing vegetable variety and amount are still important messages for the public.
Zach Conrad; Susan Raatz; Lisa Jahns. Greater vegetable variety and amount are associated with lower prevalence of coronary heart disease: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2014. Nutrition Journal 2018, 17, 67 .
AMA StyleZach Conrad, Susan Raatz, Lisa Jahns. Greater vegetable variety and amount are associated with lower prevalence of coronary heart disease: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2014. Nutrition Journal. 2018; 17 (1):67.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; Susan Raatz; Lisa Jahns. 2018. "Greater vegetable variety and amount are associated with lower prevalence of coronary heart disease: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2014." Nutrition Journal 17, no. 1: 67.
Timothy Griffin; Christian Peters; David Fleisher; Michael Conard; Zach Conrad; Nicole Tichenor; Ashley McCarthy; Emily Piltch; Jonathan Resop; Houman Saberi. Baselines, Trajectories, and Scenarios: Exploring Agricultural Production in the Northeast U.S. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development 2018, 8, 1 -15.
AMA StyleTimothy Griffin, Christian Peters, David Fleisher, Michael Conard, Zach Conrad, Nicole Tichenor, Ashley McCarthy, Emily Piltch, Jonathan Resop, Houman Saberi. Baselines, Trajectories, and Scenarios: Exploring Agricultural Production in the Northeast U.S. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development. 2018; 8 (2):1-15.
Chicago/Turabian StyleTimothy Griffin; Christian Peters; David Fleisher; Michael Conard; Zach Conrad; Nicole Tichenor; Ashley McCarthy; Emily Piltch; Jonathan Resop; Houman Saberi. 2018. "Baselines, Trajectories, and Scenarios: Exploring Agricultural Production in the Northeast U.S." Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development 8, no. 2: 1-15.
Linoleic acid (LA), the primary polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in the US diet, is an essential fatty acid. LA is available from a wide variety of foods, although it is primarily sourced from plant seed oils. Individual-level data on demography and food and nutrient intake were acquired from the NHANES waves 1999-2000, 2001-2002, 2003-2004, 2005-2006, 2007-2008, 2009-2010, 2011-2012, and 2013-2014. Mean daily intake of (LA) was estimated for each survey wave overall, and by age, gender, educational attainment, race/ethnicity, and income-to-poverty ratio. Linear temporal (1999-2014) trends in LA intake were estimated using univariate linear regression tests, with P < 0.05 and a two-tailed distribution. We found that US adults meet intake recommendation for LA and observed a trend of increasing intake of LA in the US overall and by sub-categories of age, sex, education, race/ethnicity, and income-to-poverty ratio.
Susan K Raatz; Zach Conrad; Lisa Jahns. Trends in linoleic acid intake in the United States adult population: NHANES 1999–2014. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 2018, 133, 23 -28.
AMA StyleSusan K Raatz, Zach Conrad, Lisa Jahns. Trends in linoleic acid intake in the United States adult population: NHANES 1999–2014. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids. 2018; 133 ():23-28.
Chicago/Turabian StyleSusan K Raatz; Zach Conrad; Lisa Jahns. 2018. "Trends in linoleic acid intake in the United States adult population: NHANES 1999–2014." Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 133, no. : 23-28.
Diet quality among federal food assistance program participants remains low, and little research has assessed the diet quality of food insecure non-participants. Further research is needed to assess the extent to which food substitutions can improve the nutritional status of these vulnerable populations. Substituting egg dishes for other commonly consumed dishes at certain eating occasions may be an effective strategy for improving the daily nutrient intake among these groups. Eggs are rich in many important nutrients, and are low-cost and part of a wide range of cultural food menus, which are important considerations for low-income and ethnically diverse populations. To help guide the focus of targeted nutrition interventions and education campaigns for vulnerable populations, the present work begins by 1) estimating the prevalence of nutrient inadequacy among these groups, and then models the effect of consuming egg dishes instead of commonly consumed dishes at each eating occasion on 2) the prevalence of nutrient inadequacy, and 3) the mean intake of nutrients. Dietary data from 34,741 adults ≥ 20 y were acquired from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001-2014. Diet pattern modeling was used to substitute commonly consumed egg dishes for commonly consumed main dishes at breakfast, lunch, and dinner. National Cancer Institute usual intake methods were used to estimate the prevalence of inadequate intake of 31 nutrients pre- and post-substitution, and a novel index was used to estimate change in intake of all nutrients collectively. Substituting eggs for commonly consumed main dishes at lunch or dinner did not change total daily nutrient intake for each group (P > 0.05), but decreased the prevalence of vitamin D inadequacy by 1-4 percentage points (P < 0.01). Substituting eggs for commonly consumed foods at breakfast increased the prevalence of folate inadequacy by 8-12 percentage points among each group (P < 0.01). When making food substitutions to increase nutrient intake, eating occasion should be an important consideration. Further research is needed to better understand how food substitutions affect diet costs, which may be an important driver of food purchasing decisions among low income individuals with limited food budgets.
Zach Conrad; LuAnn K. Johnson; James N. Roemmich; Wenyen Juan; Lisa Jahns. Nutrient intake disparities in the US: modeling the effect of food substitutions. Nutrition Journal 2018, 17, 53 .
AMA StyleZach Conrad, LuAnn K. Johnson, James N. Roemmich, Wenyen Juan, Lisa Jahns. Nutrient intake disparities in the US: modeling the effect of food substitutions. Nutrition Journal. 2018; 17 (1):53.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; LuAnn K. Johnson; James N. Roemmich; Wenyen Juan; Lisa Jahns. 2018. "Nutrient intake disparities in the US: modeling the effect of food substitutions." Nutrition Journal 17, no. 1: 53.
BackgroundSuboptimal diets are a major contributor to cardiometabolic disease (CMD) mortality, and substantial disparities exist for both dietary quality and mortality risk across income groups in the USA. Research is needed to quantify how food pricing policies to subsidise healthy foods and tax unhealthy foods could affect the US CMD mortality, overall and by Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) eligibility and participation.MethodsComparative risk analysis based on national data on diet (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2003–2012) and mortality (mortality-linked National Health Interview Survey) and meta-analyses of policy-diet and diet-disease relationships.ResultsA national 10% price reduction on fruits, vegetables, nuts and whole grains was estimated to prevent 19 600 CMD deaths/year, including 2.6% (95% UI 2.4% to 2.8%) of all CMD deaths among SNAP participants, 2.7% (95% UI 2.4% to 3.0%) among SNAP-eligible non-participants and 2.6% (95% UI 2.4% to 2.8%) among SNAP-ineligible non-participants. Adding a national 10% tax on sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) and processed meats would prevent a total of 33 700 CMD deaths/year, including 5.9% (95% UI 5.4% to 7.4%) of all CMD deaths among SNAP participants, 4.8% (95% UI 4.4% to 5.2%) among SNAP-eligible non-participants and 4.1% (95% UI 3.8% to 4.5%) among SNAP-ineligible non-participants. Adding a SNAP-targeted 30% subsidy for the same healthy foods would offer the largest reductions in both CMD mortality and disparities.ConclusionNational subsidies for healthy foods and taxes on SSBs and processed meats would each reduce CMD mortality; taxes would also reduce CMD mortality more steeply for SNAP participants than for non-participants.
Parke Edward Wilde; Zach Conrad; Colin Rehm; Jennifer L. Pomeranz; Jose L. Penalvo; Frederick Cudhea; Jonathan Pearson-Stuttard; Martin O’Flaherty; Renata Micha; Dariush Mozaffarian. Reductions in national cardiometabolic mortality achievable by food price changes according to Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) eligibility and participation. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2018, 72, 817 -824.
AMA StyleParke Edward Wilde, Zach Conrad, Colin Rehm, Jennifer L. Pomeranz, Jose L. Penalvo, Frederick Cudhea, Jonathan Pearson-Stuttard, Martin O’Flaherty, Renata Micha, Dariush Mozaffarian. Reductions in national cardiometabolic mortality achievable by food price changes according to Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) eligibility and participation. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2018; 72 (9):817-824.
Chicago/Turabian StyleParke Edward Wilde; Zach Conrad; Colin Rehm; Jennifer L. Pomeranz; Jose L. Penalvo; Frederick Cudhea; Jonathan Pearson-Stuttard; Martin O’Flaherty; Renata Micha; Dariush Mozaffarian. 2018. "Reductions in national cardiometabolic mortality achievable by food price changes according to Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) eligibility and participation." Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 72, no. 9: 817-824.
We present a protocol for a study investigating the effect of food price changes on purchasing decisions among individuals participating in federal food assistance programs and among those not participating in these programs. We use a laboratory-based grocery store design, which provides greater control over factors influencing food purchasing than in situ experiments in actual grocery stores. We focus primarily, but not exclusively, on eggs because they are highly nutritious, easy to prepare, can be included in many different dishes, and are a part of a wide range of cultural food menus. The primary aim of this study is to compare the own-and cross-price elasticity of eggs between individuals participating in federal food assistance programs and those not participating in these programs. Our secondary aims are to 1) compare the own- and cross-price elasticity of eggs between overweight/obese individuals and non-overweight/obese individuals, 2) examine whether delay discounting moderates the effect of income on own- and cross-price elasticity, 3) examine whether subjective social status moderates the effect of participation in federal food assistance programs on the purchase of high nutrient-dense foods, and 4) examine whether usual psychological stress level moderates the effect of subjective social status on the purchase of high-nutrient dense foods. The results of this study will provide information about the drivers of food demand among low-income adults. A better understanding of these drivers is needed to develop effective nutrition interventions for this large population.
Zach Conrad; Lisa Jahns; James N. Roemmich. Study design for a clinical trial to examine food price elasticity among participants in federal food assistance programs: A laboratory-based grocery store study. Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications 2018, 10, 154 -160.
AMA StyleZach Conrad, Lisa Jahns, James N. Roemmich. Study design for a clinical trial to examine food price elasticity among participants in federal food assistance programs: A laboratory-based grocery store study. Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications. 2018; 10 ():154-160.
Chicago/Turabian StyleZach Conrad; Lisa Jahns; James N. Roemmich. 2018. "Study design for a clinical trial to examine food price elasticity among participants in federal food assistance programs: A laboratory-based grocery store study." Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications 10, no. : 154-160.