Summary: Deer numbers have increased dramatically throughout Europe and North America over the last century, but empirical analyses of variation in harvesting and the influence of biological and cultural factors are lacking. We examined trends in size and composition of red deerCervus elaphusharvests over the last three to four decades in 11 European countries with contrasting deer productivity, management strategies and hunting traditions. The harvest increased exponentially in all countries except Austria and Germany, where it was stable, and Poland, where it has declined in recent years. Harvest growth rates ranged from 0·009 in Austria to 0·075 in Sweden and depended on the management system and harvest composition, being negatively related to the proportion of females in the adult harvest. Within four focal countries (France, Hungary, Norway and Scotland), there was considerable spatial variation in harvest growth rates. These tended to be higher in recently colonized areas than in traditional hunting areas and were often higher than the maximum possible population growth rate. Range expansion was an important component of the increase in total harvest in France and Scotland, but not in Hungary or Norway. Harvest composition was available for seven countries, all of which showed a strong increase in the proportion of calves in the harvest. The sex ratio of the adult harvest was relatively stable, being strongly male‐biased in Norway and marginally female‐biased elsewhere. The proportion of males in the harvest was unrelated to trophy hunting objectives. Synthesis and applications. Our study emphasizes that cultural aspects of management need to be accounted for, as well as biological factors, when interpreting the patterns of harvest growth and composition across Europe. Widespread sustained harvest growth has occurred, suggesting continued growth of deer populations with consequent social and economic impacts. Population control is therefore a major challenge for the future, currently hampered by inadequate population data and a decreasing number of hunters in some countries. Increasing the motivation of hunters to harvest female deer is one possible solution, although this may conflict with hunting traditions and economic considerations in some areas.

Roe deer is the most abundant cervid species occurring in most of Europe. It has an increasing economic, cultural, and ecological importance. Therefore roe deer research programmes are essential for sustainable use of this species. Our purpose was to analyse the changes in the roe deer population and harvest in Europe on the basis of available game management information. For this study we used published data for 1984 and the early 2000s. During these two decades the reported roe deer numbers (spring population) increased from 6.2 to 9.5 million and hunting bag from 1.7 to 2.7 million individuals. The population size (density) and hunting bag of roe deer increased almost all over Europe, but especially in its western part. The real population size may be around 1.5 times larger than the official data say.

Red deer is one of the most abundant cervid species occurring in most of Europe. It has an increasing economic, cultural and ecological importance. Therefore red deer research programs are essential for sustainable use of this species. Our purpose was to analyze the changes of red deer population and harvest in Europe on the basis of available game management information. For this study we used published data for 1984 and the early 2000s. During these two decades the reported red deer numbers (spring population) increased from 1.1 million to 1.7 million and hunting bag from 275 thousand to 429 thousand individuals. The population size (density) and hunting bag of red deer increased over nearly all Europe, except for the south-eastern part of the continent.

The dynamic spread of the golden jackal (Canis aureus) in Hungary results in human—carnivore conflicts. We presumed that in an area of intensive big-game management the jackal's diet would contain an increased proportion of ungulates (or their viscera). We collected and analysed the stomachs of 62 jackals during a period of two years. Viscera and carrion of wild ungulates were found to be the primary food of jackals in every season (wet weight: 55%), and in addition, consumption of adult wild boar and cervids proved remarkable. A deer calf was detected in one stomach. Adult jackals added a higher proportion of big game to their primary diet, while younger animals tended to consume plants and invertebrates to supplement their diet. There was no relevant detectable difference between the sexes. Our study did not find evidence for substantial damage to big-game populations caused by jackals.