The power systems of today seem inseparable from clean energy sources such as wind turbines (WTs) and photovoltaics (PVs). However, due to their uncertain nature, operational challenges are expected when WT and PV energy is added to the electricity network. It is necessary to introduce new technologies to compensate for the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources (RESs). Therefore, rationally implementing a demand response (DR) program with energy storage systems (ESSs) in a virtual power plant (VPP) environment is recommended as a way forward to minimize the volatile nature of RESs and improve power system reliability. Our proposed approach aims to maximize social welfare (SW) (i.e., maximization of consumer benefits while minimizing energy costs). Our method assesses the impact of the DR program on SW maximization. Two scenarios are examined, one with and one without a DR program. Stochastic programming theory is used to address the optimization problem. The uncertain behavior of WTs, PVs, and load demand is modeled using a scenario-based approach. The correctness of the proposed approach is demonstrated on a 16-bus UK generic distribution system. Our results show that SW and active power dispatch capacity of WT, PV, and ESS are fairly increased using the proposed approach.

The repurposing of retired electric vehicle (EV) batteries for second life (SL) stationary energy storage offers substantial economic and environmental benefits. The inadequate thermal management remains a critical barrier to safe and reliable deployment. This systematic review evaluates battery thermal management systems (BTMS) for second-life lithium-ion batteries, addressing the gap between thermal solutions developed for first-life EV applications and the distinct requirements of aged, heterogeneous battery packs. Several peer-reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2026 were analysed, including air cooling, liquid cooling, phase change materials (PCM), heat pipes, and hybrid thermal management strategies. The review reveals that second-life batteries exhibit increased internal resistance, heterogeneous ageing, and non-uniform heat generation, which significantly limit the effectiveness of conventional BTMS designs. Air cooling remains cost-effective but is generally insufficient for moderate-to-high-power SL applications, while liquid cooling provides superior temperature control and uniformity, but refurbishing costs are reported to be high. Passive approaches, including PCM and heat pipes, show promise for local hotspot mitigation but are constrained by low thermal conductivity, durability concerns, and limited SL-specific validation. Hybrid systems exhibit strong theoretical performance, yet experimental studies using real heterogeneously aged packs are scarce. The review highlights the lack of SL-specific thermal modelling frameworks and proposes future research directions focusing on degradation-aware modelling, data-driven control strategies, techno-economic assessment, and long-term experimental validation to enable safe, viable second-life battery deployment.