The crucial function of Battery management systems in the world of electric vehicles is thoroughly examined in this extensive article. With the popularity of Electric vehicles skyrocketing, accurate state-of-charge estimation has emerged as a critical element for guaranteeing the best battery performance, longevity, and safety. This work conducts a comprehensive analysis of 210 papers by an organized literature study and thematic analysis. It aims to offer a precise description of State charge estimate approaches, identify areas where information is lacking, and highlight the necessary topics for future research. This paper presents a thorough investigation of the evolution and significance of electric cars in the current period, a topic that has not been previously explored by other reviews. During the process of conducting theme analysis, the advantages and difficulties of high-performing techniques for state of charge prediction are examined, and a comprehensive categorization of hybrid approaches with high accuracy is generated. The literature examines several sorts of approaches based on the Kalman filter. Finally, the most effective method for getting the best possible prediction for the State of charge is explained, along with the progression of these algorithms. This paper concludes with a complete review of current trends in state of charge estimate, derived from an examination of several research paths.

A microgrid (MG) is a cyber‐physical system that facilitates integration of several distributed renewable energy resources. In the last decade, several efforts were made to standardise the framework of a cyber‐physical MG network and its control structure. In this perspective, various studies discussing the different control techniques are reported in the literature. However, a comprehensive and systematic review of a cyber‐physical MG is discussed rarely. In this study, a comprehensive review of a MG architecture and hierarchical control structure in both islanded and grid‐connected modes are presented. The hierarchical control of the MG includes primary, secondary, and tertiary control. Recent studies provide significant opportunities in dividing the control task among various layers resulting in a distributed framework. This study analyses the cyber and physical networks separately while discussing the primary, centralised, and distributed secondary control levels with their merits, demerits, and typical applications. A Venn diagram analysis is also presented that clearly distinguishes the primary control scheme in different research sub‐areas. Furthermore, the MG communication structure, protocols, design, constraints, and cyber security are also reviewed systematically. Finally, future trends are summarised based on the state‐of‐the‐art MG research.

This paper presents a technique of harmonic minimization from output voltage waveform of a reduced switch Multilevel Inverter (MLI) through an efficient bio inspired metaheuristic algorithm called Black widow optimization (BWO). The proposed reduced switch 13- level MLI scheme uses a single Photovoltaic (PV) source which can be suitable for grid integration. The proposed BWO algorithm minimizes the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of output voltage with low operational time compared to other existing nature based algorithms considering large searching area. The weighted THD (WTHD) of the output voltage is also minimized in order to reduce the effect of lower order harmonics from the output voltage in a greater extent. The convergence rate and level of accuracy of BWO algorithm is compared with two different bio inspired algorithms for justification. The MLI operation is carried out with fundamental frequency, minimizing the switching stress while lowering the power loss compared to PWM or Sinusoidal PWM switching schemes. A single PV panel with multi winding flyback converter is used for medium voltage application through reduced switch MLI, serving the purpose of both isolation and reduction of energy sources. Simulation and experimental analysis are carried out with online control technique using a three phase 13-level reduced MLI to validate the proposed concept on a practical system.

This paper presents a hierarchical cyber-physical multi-agent model for an AC microgrid (MG). A new distributed finite-time secondary controller is designed in the provision of ancillary services, such as voltage and frequency synchronization and active and reactive power regulation. The control algorithm developed is fully distributed and intended to restore the system voltage and frequency to their nominal value finite time. The existing distributed controllers achieve a consensus in an infinite-time horizon, whereas the proposed control provides a quick convergence to a consensus even in the face of disturbances and restores the voltage and frequency in less than 0.25 s. For accurate active and reactive power regulation, a distributed control algorithm is proposed that corrects the power mismatch among neighboring distributed generator units and eventually for the entire MG network. A Lyapunov analysis is used to establish the upper limit on the convergence time. The proposed control scheme is evaluated and compared with the previously reported asymptotic control technique based on a neighborhood tracking error using time-domain simulations under load variation and communication constraints. The controller withstands a communication link delay up to 2 s with a small deviation and settles down to the nominal values within 0.4 s. Further, the convergence analysis shows that the performance of the proposed algorithm depends exclusively on the controller parameters and communication network connectivity, not on the line and load parameters of the AC MG. The proposed controller enables the plug-and-play capability of the AC MG and effectively reduces the load change-induced disturbance.

Communication networks are extensively used in microgrid (MG) networks for information sharing under distributed secondary control. The shared control information experiences inherent time delay while traversing the communication channels. This paper presents a communication latency impact analysis on dynamic average consensus-based secondary control scheme in an islanded MG. The proposed control scheme synchronizes the voltage and frequency of an islanded MG to their nominal values. A permissible communication delay bound is derived using the solution of delay differential equation model of the dynamic consensus algorithm. Also, the effect of communication latency on the convergence rate of the control scheme is presented. The relationship between maximum degree of the communication graph and permissible delay bound is established. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the proposed control scheme is evaluated by simulating a MG test system using MATLAB/SimPowerSystem. The effect of communication latency is presented by simulating a set of fixed link delays and results show that the convergence time increases with an increase in time delay.