The increasing scarcity of fossil raw materials, together with the need to develop new processes and technology based on renewable sources, and the need to dispose of an increasing amount of biomass-derived waste, have boosted the concept of biorefineries. Both 1G and 2G biorefineries are focused on the obtention of biofuels, chemicals, materials, food and feed from biomass, a renewable resource. Fumaric acid, and most compounds involved in the Kreb cycle, are considered key platform chemicals, not only for being acidulants and additives in the food industry, but also for their prospective use as monomers. This review is focused on the biotechnological processes based on fungi, mainly of the Rhizopus genus, whose main product is fumaric acid, on the process conditions, the bioreactors and modes of operation and on the purification of the acid once it is produced.

Fumaric acid is a promising monomer to obtain biomass-based polyesters and polyamides, and it is mainly produced by fungi of the Rhizopus genus in medium to high titters. The use of glucose, a main component of starchy and cellulosic food waste, as carbon source, together with a low-nitrogen source concentration, is a promising route to reduce process costs. In this work, the effects of nitrogen and carbonate sources on Rhizopus arrhizus NRRL 1526 morphology and fumaric acid productivity were analysed, simplifying the traditional production broth composition. Moreover, a non-structured, non-segregated kinetic model was proposed and fitted to concentration data of all relevant components obtained in batches performed in triplicate with the selected production broth at 34 °C and 200 rpm in an orbital shaker.

Fumaric acid is one of the most promising biorefinery platform chemicals, fruit residues being a very suitable raw material for its production in second generation biorefineries. In particular, apple pomace is a plentiful residue from the apple juice industry, with apple being the second largest fruit crop in the world, with a production that increased from 46 to 86 Mtons in the 1994–2021 period. With a global apple juice production of more than 4.5 Mtons, a similar amount of apple pomace is produced yearly. In this work, apple pomace hydrolysate has been obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis and further characterized for its content in sugars, phenolics and nitrogen using different analytic methods, based on HPLC and colorimetric techniques. Previous to the use of this hydrolysate (APH), we studied if the addition of fructose to the usual glucose-rich broth could lead to high fumaric acid yields, titers and productivities. Afterwards, APH fermentation was performed and improved using different nitrogen initial amounts, obtaining production yields (0.32 g_{Fumaric acid}/g_{consumed sugar}) similar to those obtained with synthetic media (0.38 g_{Fumaric acid}/g_{consumed sugar}). Kinetic modelling was employed to evaluate, explain, and understand the experimental values and trends of relevant components in the fermentation broth as functions of the bioprocess time, proposing a suitable reaction scheme and a non-structured, non-segregated kinetic model based on it.

The production of organic acids by biotechnological processes has experienced a notable impulse with the advent of first and second generation biorefineries and the need of searching for renewable and sustainable feedstock, such as biomass. Fumaric acid is a promising biomonomer for polyamide production and a well-known acidulant and preservative in food and feed industries. Malic acid is a well-known food acidulant with a high market share. The biotechnological Fumaric and Malic acid production via fungi of the Rhizopus genus is being explored nowadays as a process for the valorization of food and food-related waste to obtain food ingredients and key platform chemicals of the so-called biochemical biorefinery. In this work, a preliminary study is performed to find reproducible conditions for the production of the acids by Rhizopus arrhizus NRRL 1526 by controlling fungi morphology and inoculum conditions. Afterwards, several production runs are performed to obtain biomass, glucose, and acid concentration data at different processing time values. Finally, an unstructured, unsegregated model including a logistic-type equation for biomass and potential-type equations for the substrate and the products is fitted to experimental data. We find that the production of the organic acids is mainly non-associated with fungal growth.

Las metodologías activas transforman la experiencia de aprendizaje, empoderando a los estudiantes y promoviendo su autorregulación. Por medio de la metodología de aula invertida se ha reorganizado la dinámica de las asignaturas de química, proporcionando material previo para que los estudiantes lo asimilen antes de la clase. Durante las sesiones en el aula, se ha buscado fomentar la resolución de dudas y la interacción activa por medio del trabajo colaborativo, aumentando de esta manera las relaciones interpersonales y mejorando el clima de aula. Este estudio analiza cómo estas metodologías influyen en la autorregulación de los alumnos, abordando aspectos como la planificación de estudios y la comprensión profunda de conceptos, observándose como los buenos hábitos de autoorganización suelen mantenerse y una buena valoración de la metodología cuanto mayor es la autorregulación del alumnado