Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine how ethnic migrant entrepreneurs (EMEs) utilise identity work to build legitimacy in a host country. According to optimal distinctiveness theory (ODT), legitimacy is achieved by balancing conformance and distinctiveness. This paper draws on ODT in the context of ethnic migrant entrepreneurship to examine how EMEs both fit in (conformance) and maintain their uniqueness (distinctiveness) in cross-cultural settings.Design/methodology/approach: This study adopts a qualitative approach utilising semi-structured interviews to examine the identity work of EMEs from three distinct countries (Indonesia, Pakistan and South Korea (henceforth Korea)) in one host country (Malaysia).Findings: The results show that EMEs’ identity work incorporates both the blurring and strengthening of host-home country boundaries. Building on this study’s results, the authors develop a model of identity work and three propositions regarding legitimacy building through identity in the context of ethnic migrant entrepreneurship.Originality/value: Through the model and propositions, this research contributes to the identity, international entrepreneurship and ethnic migrant entrepreneurship discourse by identifying the mechanisms, focus and key features of identity work for entrepreneurs operating in cross-cultural settings. In so doing, this research also offers an alternative interpretation on the apparent divergent views around identity work in the fields of organisation (advocate isomorphism) and entrepreneurship (advocate uniqueness).

Previous literature has acknowledged franchising as a great way for businesses to expand into new areas and opportunities. It has become a popular option for those who are looking to start their businesses by choosing a well-known company’s brand name and a ready-made business operation, or existing entrepreneurs who want to franchise their firms. Franchising a business contributes to the GDP of the countries involved, including Malaysia. However, little is known about what drives the growth of franchised firms, particularly in emerging countries such as Malaysia. Hence, this study aims to identify the growth factors of franchising, from both the franchisors’ and franchisees’ viewpoints. Therefore, from this dyad relationship, the analysis can provide comprehensive views of the growth factors of franchises. Interestingly, as this study was conducted during the pandemic COVID-19, the findings would include the pandemic situation that reflects the business environment. Therefore, the case study method was adopted, which involved semi-structured interviews with five service firms from two different brands, including franchisors and franchisees. The findings show that three growth factors emerged from this study: product and service innovation, franchisor-franchisee tolerance, and government support. This study contributes to obtaining a deeper grasp of the growth factors of franchisors and franchisees. Moreover, this study contributes to developing an effective franchising business process model as guidance for franchisors, franchisees and policymakers. This study also provides avenues for future research.

The franchising sector demands a high level of assurance and commitment. This is because creating entrepreneurial value is at the core of any franchising strategy. However, little is understood about what causes franchised businesses’ critical success factors, particularly in developing nations like Malaysia. Hence, this study aims to identify the critical success factors in franchising business firms. The characteristics of franchisors and franchisees that can contribute to the franchise system’s success in Malaysia were discovered using a focus group method by inviting franchisors and franchisees who are already running their businesses. In addition, Perbadanan Nasional Berhad (PERNAS) and the Malaysian Franchise Association (MFA), together with academicians, were also invited as a part of the focus group discussion. The findings show that three critical success factors emerged from this study, the franchisor’s capability, interconnection with franchisees, and constant innovation. These three elements demonstrated that there is still room for a more significant expansion. Therefore, anyone considering joining a franchise should know it is an option. Additionally, this research helps produce a valuable model of the franchising business process that regulators, franchisors, and franchisees can use as a guide. Finally, this study also offers directions for further research.

This research explores how ethnic migrant entrepreneurs (EMEs) from countries with a range of cultural differences to the host country exploit entrepreneurial opportunities in a single host country. Specifically, this study investigates: (1) the types of opportunities exploited by EMEs, and (2) the way they exploit these entrepreneurial opportunities. This study offers a contextualised insight on the link between entrepreneurial opportunity exploitation and cultural differences (operationalised using cultural distance, or CD). In particular, through highlighting the moderating role of CD, this study has developed a matrix of entrepreneurial opportunities based on cultural differences for EMEs, which can be useful for both EMEs and the host country’s administrative agencies. By accounting for culture in articulating the findings, this research contributes to theory by bridging the institutional-individual divide in entrepreneurship discussion through an institutional lens. A practical implication of this study is a delineation of opportunities according to cultural differences, which is beneficial for entrepreneurs across borders.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the way immigrant entrepreneurs (IEs) capture transnational opportunities in their home and host countries. Through an identity lens, this study adopts a qualitative approach in examining transnational entrepreneurship activities conducted by IEs from three countries (Indonesia, Pakistan and South Korea [henceforth Korea]) in one host country (Malaysia). The findings indicate that IEs’ home-host country identities enable them to recognize and exploit entrepreneurial opportunities in multiple countries through unique resources difficult to be imitated by competitors in their home and host countries. This paper contributes to the international entrepreneurship literature by introducing an identity-sensitive model of immigrant entrepreneurship in transnational spaces which will be useful for policy and practice concerning trade and migration.