In this review, the intricate issue about the occurrence levels of mycotoxins in foods is discussed aiming to underline the main knowledge gaps on the persistence of these toxicants in the food production system. Mycotoxins have been a key challenge to the food industry, economic growth, and consumers’ health. Despite a breadth of studies over the past decades, the persistence of mycotoxins in foods remain an overlooked concern that urges exploration. Therefore, we aimed to concisely underline the matter and provide possible biochemical and metabolic details that can be relevant to the food sector and overall public health. We also stress the application of computational modeling, high-throughput omics, and high-resolution imaging approaches, which can provide insights into the structural and physicochemical characteristics and the metabolic activities which occur in a stored cereal grain’s embryo and endosperm and their relationship with storage fungi and mycotoxins on a cellular level. In addition, there is a need for extensive collaborative network and funding, which will play a key role in finding effective solutions against the persistence of mycotoxins at the genetic and molecular to metabolic levels in the food system.

Cheese is one of the most susceptible dairy foods to accumulating aflatoxins due to their high affinity to caseins. The consumption of cheese contaminated with high levels of aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) can be highly harmful to humans. The present work, based on high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), highlights the frequency and levels of AFM₁ in coalho and mozzarella cheese samples (n = 28) from the main cheese-processing plants in Araripe Sertão and Agreste in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. Of the evaluated cheeses, 14 samples were artisanal cheeses and the remaining 14 were industrial (manufactured) cheeses. All samples (100%) had detectable levels of AFM₁, with concentrations ranging from 0.026 to 0.132 µg/kg. Higher levels (p < 0.05) of AFM₁ were observed in artisanal mozzarella cheeses, but none of the cheese samples exceed the maximum permissible limits (MPLs) of 2.5 µg/kg established for AFM₁ in cheese in Brazil and 0.25 µg/kg in the European countries by the European Union (EU). The high incidence of low levels of AFM₁ found in the evaluated cheeses underscores the need for stringent control measures to prevent this mycotoxin in milk used for cheese production in the study area, with the aim of protecting public health and reducing significant economic losses for producers.

The secondary metabolism of toxigenic fungi can produce mycotoxins, substances that are toxic for both humans and animals. Mycotoxins and their by-products found in various biological tissues are considered biomarkers, and concentrations of these substances are directly proportional to the level of exposure. Mineral adsorbents are substances that may prevent mycotoxin absorption. The aim of this review is to study the feasibility of biomarkers as tools to assess the efficiency of mineral adsorbents against mycotoxin absorption in farm animals. In the systematic review, data from the scientific literature between the 2001 and 2022 were searched based on established criteria selection and eligibility. A total of 22 articles were included. The most used species as animal models were poultry and cattle, while the most common biological samples were milk, serum, and liver. Biomarkers most frequently analyzed were aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) and unmetabolized aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁). The most used analytical method was liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Biomarkers are adequate tools to assess the efficiency of mineral adsorbents against the aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol in farm animals, but further studies are needed to provide reliable biomarkers for other mycotoxins.

Prenatal exposure to aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) poses a significant risk to fetal development and is associated with reduced birth weight in humans. Experimental studies consistently show that AFB₁ induces fetal abnormalities, with skeletal malformations and ossification defects being the most common. However, the specific impact of AFB₁ on fetal osteogenesis remains unclear. Given this knowledge gap, this study aimed to review the existing literature concerning the pathogenesis of AFB₁ and its potential influence on bone development. The primary mechanisms implicated in AFB₁’s impact on bone include dysfunction in vitamin D and calcium metabolism, alterations in parathyroid hormone production and function, induction of inflammatory responses, and oxidative stress. Collectively, these mechanisms have the potential to impair osteoblast and osteoclast function and, consequently, compromise ossification. Based on these findings, studies should explore and elucidate the effects of AFB₁. Elucidating these mechanisms is crucial for mitigating the deleterious impacts of AFB₁ on fetal skeletal development.