The scale development process is critical to building knowledge in human and social sciences. The present paper aimed (a) to provide a systematic review of the published literature regarding current practices of the scale development process, (b) to assess the main limitations reported by the authors in these processes, and (c) to provide a set of recommendations for best practices in future scale development research. Papers were selected in September 2015, with the search terms “scale development” and “limitations” from three databases: Scopus, PsycINFO, and Web of Science, with no time restriction. We evaluated 105 studies published between 1976 and 2015. The analysis considered the three basic steps in scale development: item generation, theoretical analysis, and psychometric analysis. The study identified ten main types of limitation in these practices reported in the literature: sample characteristic limitations, methodological limitations, psychometric limitations, qualitative research limitations, missing data, social desirability bias, item limitations, brevity of the scale, difficulty controlling all variables, and lack of manual instructions. Considering these results, various studies analyzed in this review clearly identified methodological weaknesses in the scale development process (e.g., smaller sample sizes in psychometric analysis), but only a few researchers recognized and recorded these limitations. We hope that a systematic knowledge of the difficulties usually reported in scale development will help future researchers to recognize their own limitations and especially to make the most appropriate choices among different conceptions and methodological strategies.

The aim of this study was to analyse the effect of mental fatigue on passing decision‐making in professional soccer athletes. A controlled and counterbalanced cross‐over design was adopted consisting of three visits with a 1‐week interval between sessions. Twenty professional soccer male athletes participated in three randomized conditions divided into three visits: control, 15‐min Stroop task, and 30‐min Stroop task. Inhibitory control was accessed by the Stroop task (accuracy and response time) before and after induced mental fatigue protocol. The athletes played a training match (90‐min) following the experimental conditions. The Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) was used for the passing decision‐making analysis. The GPAI analysis showed impaired passing decision‐making performance following the 30‐min Stroop task compared with the 15‐min and control condition (F _(2,17) = 6.99, p = .01). Moreover, an increase in response time during the Stroop task was found following 30‐min Stroop task condition (F _(2,17) = 6.57, p = .03) compared to 15‐min of Stroop task and control conditions. Prolonged cognitive tasks may be considered a mediating factor in passing decision‐making performance in male professional soccer athletes throughout a full‐length training match. Thus, athletes should avoid highly demanding‐cognitive tasks before a soccer match. Future studies are required to explore more ecological cognitive tasks to induce mental fatigue (i.e. smartphones and video‐games) and their effects on other performance indicators (e.g. physical, technical, tactical) in a full‐length training match setting.

The objective of this study was to analyse the effect of the use of social networks in smartphones or playing video games on the passing decision-making performance in professional soccer athletes. Participants were 25 male professional soccer athletes (mean ± SD: age 23.4 ± 2.8 years). The participants performed three randomised conditions divided into three groups: control (CON), smartphone (SMA), and video game (VID). Before and after each experimental condition, the Stroop Task assessed the level of induced mental fatigue. Then, the athletes performed a simulated soccer match. A CANON® camera recorded the matches for further analysis on passing decision-making performance. A group effect was identified (p < .01) with impairment on passing decision-making performance for the SMA (p = .01, ES = 0.5) and VID (p = .01, ES = 0.5) conditions. We concluded that the use of social networks on smartphones and/or playing video games right before official soccer matches might impair the passing decision-making performance in professional soccer athletes.

RESUMO Objetivo: Analisar a literatura científica referente à avaliação da imagem corporal em crianças por meio de uma revisão integrativa da literatura. Fontes de dados: Foi realizado um cruzamento das palavras-chave “body image” AND “child” nas bases de dados Scopus, Medline e Biblioteca Virtual de Saúde. A pesquisa eletrônica foi feita com base nos estudos publicados de janeiro de 2013 até janeiro de 2016, com o intuito de verificar os mais atuais sobre o tema. Os critérios de exclusão foram: estudos em duplicata; cujos resumos não estivessem disponíveis; não empíricos; que não avaliassem algum componente da imagem corporal; cuja amostra não considerasse a idade alvo da presente pesquisa (crianças de 0 a 12 anos); que considerassem populações clínicas; e estudos não disponíveis na íntegra. Síntese dos dados: Foram identificadas 7.681 referências e, após critérios de exclusão, 33 estudos foram analisados. Os resultados apontaram que as dimensões perceptiva e atitudinal, com foco na insatisfação corporal, têm sido exploradas, sendo avaliadas principalmente por escalas de silhuetas. Programas de intervenção foram desenvolvidos internacionalmente para prevenir o desenvolvimento de imagem corporal negativa em crianças. Conclusões: As pesquisas incluídas na presente revisão avaliaram aspectos específicos da imagem corporal de crianças, especialmente a percepção corporal e a insatisfação corporal. Recomenda-se o desenvolvimento de instrumentos específicos para crianças que busquem avaliar diferentes dimensões da imagem corporal, tendo em vista a promoção do bem-estar psicossocial dos indivíduos ao longo de todo o desenvolvimento humano.

OBJECTIVE To analyze Brazilian literature on body image and the theoretical and methodological advances that have been made. METHODS A detailed review was undertaken of the Brazilian literature on body image, selecting published articles, dissertations and theses from the SciELO, SCOPUS, LILACS and PubMed databases and the CAPES thesis database. Google Scholar was also used. There was no start date for the search, which used the following search terms: “body image” AND “Brazil” AND “scale(s)”; “body image” AND “Brazil” AND “questionnaire(s)”; “body image” AND “Brazil” AND “instrument(s)”; “body image” limited to Brazil and “body image”. RESULTS The majority of measures available were intended to be used in college students, with half of them evaluating satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the body. Females and adolescents of both sexes were the most studied population. There has been a significant increase in the number of available instruments. Nevertheless, numerous published studies have used non-validated instruments, with much confusion in the use of the appropriate terms (e.g., perception, dissatisfaction, distortion). CONCLUSIONS Much more is needed to understand body image within the Brazilian population, especially in terms of evaluating different age groups and diversifying the components/dimensions assessed. However, interest in this theme is increasing, and important steps have been taken in a short space of time.