Climate oscillations are becoming more extreme, and mangroves may be more susceptible to changes in physical conditions that can lead to mass diebacks. The current study analysed the impacts of an extreme weather event in the Cananéia-Iguape Coastal System, southeast Brazilian mangroves and the condition of the area over three years. We used a multiproxy approach, including analyses of climatic attributes, structural vegetation, and vegetation indices. Damage caused by a strong storm and hail damage had a severe impact on mangrove areas. A meteorological station installed in the mangrove since 2008 recorded a maximum wind gust of 58 km·h⁻¹ on 30 May 2019. On the Beaufort scale, this speed is classified as strong wind. After the extreme weather event, there were catastrophic impacts on the mangrove, with more than 90% dead trunks. Vegetation indices were reduced, indicating intense changes. The NDVI of the mangroves was reduced from 0.72 to 0.35. The LAI confirmed this premise, with a reduction from 4.25 to 0.63. After three years, natural recovery had not occurred. Extreme weather events have continued to occur along coasts, drastically altering the landscape. Mangroves have been affected by these events, and depending on the state of health of the forests, may have difficulties in recovery.

The objective of this research is to select the best orbital sensor for rainfall estimates (monthly and annual scales) and to analyze the frequency and magnitude of extreme rainfall events and their trends and disruptions based on the use of satellite rainfall product data for the Cananeia–Iguape Coastal System (CICS). Data from four satellite rainfall products were used to identify the correspondence with seven points on the surface of the study area. Statistical metrics were used to identify the best satellite rainfall product. After identifying the sensor with the best performance in estimating orbital precipitation, extreme events were identified by the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) on a one-month (SPI-1), three-month (SPI-3), and twelve-month (SPI-12) scale. Trend and rupture detection in the time series were performed using different statistical techniques (Mann–Kendall, Pettitt, Standard Normal Homogeneity Test, or Buishand test). Among the satellite rainfall products, CHIRPS had the best measurements for the analyzed points on the surface. The year 1983 was characterized as very rainy, also marked by the occurrence of El Niño, and was marked by the rupture of the rains at all points (IDs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) analyzed in the month of June. The decrease in monthly rainfall was more significant in the months of February (at points IDs 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7) and April (IDs 1, 3, 5, and 7). Decreased rainfall may cause CICS mangrove shrinkage. These results showed the importance of studying rainfall in an area with mangroves in order to understand the dynamics of vegetation in the face of climate change.

A mangrove is a transitional coastal ecosystem between marine and terrestrial environments that is characterized by salinity and constant tidal flooding. Mangroves contain plant communities that are adapted to several physical constraints, including the climate. The purpose of this study was to analyze the variations in climatic attributes (air temperature, relative air humidity, global solar radiation, wind, and rainfall) in the mangroves located in the municipality of Iguape, on the southern coast of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. In addition, it was determined whether the existing variation is related to the presence of the canopy environment. A microclimate tower was installed with two weather stations to obtain an analysis of the variation of the climatic attributes above and below the canopy. The results indicate that global solar radiation had an average transmissivity of 26.8%. The air temperature at 10 m was higher than that at the sensor at 2 m. The average rainfall interception for the mangrove environment was 19.6%. Both the maximum gust and average wind speed decreased by approximately 63.7% at 2 m. The mangrove canopy was found to be an important control on the variation of climatic attributes. On a microclimatic scale, the climate attributes had a direct influence on the spatial distribution of vegetation. Additionally, characteristics of the canopy are the main control for this variation, especially for the distribution of rainfall and the amount of solar radiation below the canopy, which influence the distribution of plant species in the environment.

Mangrove forests provide essential ecosystem services to human communities, including climate regulation. In Brazil, the National System of Nature Conservation Units divides Protected Areas (PAs) into two categories: Full Protection (FP) and Sustainable Use (SU). The FP areas are composed of five categories, including National Parks, and the SU areas comprise seven categories, such as Environmental Protection Areas. The current research compared climatic attributes, leaf area index, and vegetation structure development in mangrove forests in two distinct categories of PAs (FP and SU) along the southern coast of the state of São Paulo (Brazil) to analyze the climatic conditions in different PA categories. A survey of the microclimatic attributes found that the conserved mangroves in the FP PA presented a) greater thermal stability in terms of the maximum, minimum, and mean air temperatures, and b) a better role of mangrove vegetation in (re)distributing the energy inside the forest. Therefore, it is affirmed that FP PAs play a fundamental role in maintaining the good conservation status of mangroves and, consequently, stabilizing the microclimate.

Lima, N. G.B, Galvani, E., Falcão, R. M. and Cunha-Lignon, M., 2013. Air temperature and canopy cover of impacted and conserved mangrove ecosystems: a study of a subtropical estuary in Brazil. In: Conley, D.C., Masselink, G., Russell, P.E. and O'Hare, T.J. (eds.) The aim of this study was to analyze and compare the variation of air temperature between impacted and conserved mangrove areas by monitoring the microclimate and canopy cover of mangrove forests in the southern coast of São Paulo State, Brazil. Data were collected from September 2011 to August 2012 using meteorological towers installed below the canopy at a height of 2 m. Hemispherical photographs were processed to acquire the canopy opening and Leaf Area Index, which quantifies the area with leaves, trunks and branches. The mangrove vegetation structure was characterized in permanent plots located in conserved and impacted areas. All plants were identified and described. Evaluations of the temperature data using Pearson linear correlat...