Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine development for preventive and therapeutic applications has evolved rapidly over the last decade. The mRVNA vaccine has proven therapeutic efficacy in various applications, including infectious disease, immunotherapy, genetic disorders, regenerative medicine, and cancer. Many mRNA vaccines have made it to clinical trials, and a couple have obtained FDA approval. This emerging therapeutic approach has several advantages over conventional methods: safety; efficacy; adaptability; bulk production; and cost-effectiveness. However, it is worth mentioning that the delivery to the target site and in vivo degradation and thermal stability are boundaries that can alter their efficacy and outcomes. In this review, we shed light on different types of mRNA vaccines, their mode of action, and the process to optimize their development and overcome their limitations. We also have explored various delivery systems focusing on the nanoparticle-mediated delivery of the mRNA vaccine. Generally, the delivery system plays a vital role in enhancing mRNA vaccine stability, biocompatibility, and homing to the desired cells and tissues. In addition to their function as a delivery vehicle, they serve as a compartment that shields and protects the mRNA molecules against physical, chemical, and biological activities that can alter their efficiency. Finally, we focused on the future considerations that should be attained for safer and more efficient mRNA application underlining the advantages and disadvantages of the current mRNA vaccines.

The organ-on-a-chip (OoC) technology holds significant promise for biosensors and personalized medicine by enabling the creation of miniature, patient-specific models of human organs. This review studies the recent advancements in the application of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microfluidics for OoC purposes. It underscores the main fabrication technologies of PDMS microfluidic systems, such as photolithography, injection molding, hot embossing, and 3D printing. The review also highlights the crucial role of integrated biosensors within OoC platforms. These electrochemical, electrical, and optical sensors, integrated within the microfluidic environment, provide valuable insights into cellular behavior and drug response. Furthermore, the review explores the exciting potential of PDMS-based OoC technology for personalized medicine. OoC devices can forecast drug effectiveness and tailor therapeutic strategies for patients by incorporating patient-derived cells and replicating individual physiological variations, helping the healing process and accelerating recovery. This personalized approach can revolutionize healthcare by offering more precise and efficient treatment options. Understanding OoC fabrication and its applications in biosensors and personalized medicine can play a pivotal role in future implementations of multifunctional OoC biosensors.

Cancer treatment has undergone a paradigm shift following the introduction of novel cancer treatment approaches that involve the host’s immune system in fighting established tumors. This new concept aids the immune system in identifying, attacking, and killing the tumor cells. However, although some encouraging results were observed clinically, this approach has its own limitations. For example, the benefits of certain anticancer drugs were only observed in some patients, off-target effects, immune evasion, and poor pharmacokinetics. Recently, several advancements have been made with the understanding and development of tumor-targeted drug delivery systems, which combine both effectiveness and patients’ safety during cancer treatment. In this review, we will focus on the latest progress in targeted drug delivery, particularly applying nanoparticles, liposomes, exosomes, and Wharton’s jelly-derived macrovesicles as immune cell enhancers, as well as overcoming therapeutic resistance. We also characterize major current problems, such as the biocompatibility and scalability of the delivered engineering systems, as well as the required regulations. Lastly, we will show some examples of effective approaches to resolve these issues for more efficient cancer therapy. The importance of this article lies in bridging two sides in a single framework perspective: the novel implementation of unique delivery systems and the latest advances in the field of cancer immunotherapy. Thus, this provides better insights for the future of cancer treatment.

Antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs) are a rapidly advancing class of targeted cancer therapeutics that couple the antigen specificity of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with the potent cytotoxicity of small-molecule drugs. In their core design, a tumor-targeting antibody is covalently linked to a cytotoxic payload via a chemical linker, enabling the selective delivery of highly potent agents to malignant cells while sparing normal tissues, thereby improving the therapeutic index. Humanized and fully human immunoglobulin G1(IgG1) antibodies are the most common ADC backbones due to their stability in systemic circulation, robust Fcγ receptor engagement for immune effector functions, and reduced immunogenicity. Antibody selection requires balancing tumor specificity, internalization rate, and binding affinity to avoid barriers to tissue penetration, such as the binding-site barrier effect, while emerging designs exploit tumor-specific antigen variants or unique post-translational modifications to further enhance selectivity. Advances in antibody engineering, linker chemistry, and payload innovation have reinforced the clinical success of ADCs, with more than a dozen agents FDA approved for hematologic malignancies and solid tumors and over 200 in active clinical trials. This review critically examines established and emerging conjugation strategies, including lysine- and cysteine-based chemistries, enzymatic tagging, glycan remodeling, non-canonical amino acid incorporation, and affinity peptide-mediated methods, and discusses how conjugation site, drug-to-antibody ratio (DAR) control, and linker stability influence pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety. Innovations in site-specific conjugation have improved ADC homogeneity, stability, and clinical predictability, though challenges in large-scale manufacturing and regulatory harmonization remain. Furthermore, novel ADC architectures such as bispecific ADCs, conditionally active (probody) ADCs, immune-stimulating ADCs, protein-degrader ADCs, and dual-payload designs are being developed to address tumor heterogeneity, drug resistance, and off-target toxicity. By integrating mechanistic insights, preclinical and clinical data, and recent technological advances, this work highlights current progress and future directions for next-generation ADCs aimed at achieving superior efficacy, safety, and patient outcomes, especially in treating refractory cancers.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are classed as diseases of aging, which are associated with an increased prevalence of atherosclerotic lesion formation caused by such diseases and is considered as one of the leading causes of death globally, representing a severe health crisis affecting the heart and blood vessels. Atherosclerosis is described as a chronic condition that can lead to myocardial infarction, ischemic cardiomyopathy, stroke, and peripheral arterial disease and to date, most pharmacological therapies mainly aim to control risk factors in patients with cardiovascular disease. Advances in transformative therapies and imaging diagnostics agents could shape the clinical applications of such approaches, including nanomedicine, biomaterials, immunotherapy, cell therapy, and gene therapy, which are emerging and likely to significantly impact CVD management in the coming decade. This review summarizes the current anti-atherosclerotic therapies’ major milestones, strengths, and limitations. It provides an overview of the recent discoveries and emerging technologies in nanomedicine, cell therapy, and gene and immune therapeutics that can revolutionize CVD clinical practice by steering it toward precision medicine. CVD-related clinical trials and promising pre-clinical strategies that would significantly impact patients with CVD are discussed. Here, we review these recent advances, highlighting key clinical opportunities in the rapidly emerging field of CVD medicine.

Glass-based microfluidic devices are essential for applications such as diagnostics and drug discovery, which utilize their optical clarity and chemical stability. This review systematically analyzes pulsed laser micromachining as a transformative technique for fabricating glass-based microfluidic devices, addressing the limitations of conventional methods. By examining three pulse regimes—long (≥nanosecond), short (picosecond), and ultrashort (femtosecond)—this study evaluates how laser parameters (fluence, scanning speed, pulse duration, repetition rate, wavelength) and glass properties influence ablation efficiency and quality. A higher fluence improves the material ablation efficiency across all the regimes but poses risks of thermal damage or plasma shielding in ultrashort pulses. Optimizing the scanning speed balances the depth and the surface quality, with slower speeds enhancing the channel depth but requiring heat accumulation mitigation. Shorter pulses (femtosecond regime) achieve greater precision (feature resolution) and minimal heat-affected zones through nonlinear absorption, while long pulses enable rapid deep-channel fabrication but with increased thermal stress. Elevating the repetition rate improves the material ablation rates but reduces the surface quality. The influence of wavelength on efficiency and quality varies across the three pulse regimes. Material selection is critical to outcomes and potential applications: fused silica demonstrates a superior surface quality due to low thermal expansion, while soda–lime glass provides cost-effective prototyping. The review emphasizes the advantages of laser micromachining and the benefits of a wide range of applications. Future directions should focus on optimizing the process parameters to improve the efficiency and quality of the produced devices at a lower cost to expand their uses in biomedical, environmental, and quantum applications.