The rapid growth of multidrug-resistant Salmonella is a global public health concern. The aim of this study was to detect integrons, colistin and β-lactamase resistance genes in Salmonella enteritidis and typhimurium. A total of 63 isolates of S. enteritidis (n = 18) and S. typhimurium (n = 45) from fecal samples of layers and rats at chicken farms were screened for antibiotic resistant genes. Conventional PCR was performed for the detection of integrons (classes 1, 2, and 3), colistin (mcr-1-5) and β-lactamase (bla_CTX-M, bla_CTX-M-1, bla_CTX-M-2, bla_CTX-M-9, bla_CTX-M-15, bla_TEM, bla_SHV, and bla_OXA) resistant genes. Of these isolates, 77% and 27% of S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis harboured the mcr-4 encoded gene for colistin, respectively. The prevalence of class 1 integrons for S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis was 100% for each serovar, while for class 2 integrons of S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis it was 49% and 33% respectively, while class 3 integron genes was not detected. Our study also detected high levels of β-lactamase encoding genes (bla gene), namely bla_CTX-M, bla_CTX-M-1, bla_CTX-M-9 and bla_TEM from both S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis. This, to our knowledge, is the first report of mcr-4 resistance gene detection in Salmonella serovars in South Africa. This study also highlights the importance of controlling rats at poultry farms in order to reduce the risk of transmission of antibiotic resistance to chickens and eventually to humans.

Globally, the use of ethnoveterinary medicine as remedies for animal health among different ethnic groups justify the need for a systematic exploration to enhance their potential. In addition, the increasing popularity and utilisation of woody plants remain common in traditional medicine, which may be attributed to their inherent benefits. The current review was aimed at analysing ethnoveterinary surveys, biological activities, and secondary metabolites/phytochemical profiles of the woody plants of South Africa. Eligible literature (period: 2000 to 2020) were retrieved from different databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Sabinet, and Science Direct. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 20 ethnoveterinary surveys were eligible and were subjected to further analysis. We identified 104 woody plant species from 44 plant families that are used in the treatment of different diseases in animals, particularly cattle (70%) and goats (20%). The most mentioned (with six citations) woody plants were Terminalia sericea Burch. ex DC and Ziziphus mucronata Willd., which were followed by plants with five (Cussonia spicata Thunb., Pterocarpus angolensis DC and Vachellia karroo (Hayne) Banfi & Galasso) or four (Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd, Cassia abbreviata Oliv., and Strychnos henningsii Gilg) individual mentions. The most dominant families were Fabaceae (19%), Apocynaceae (5.8%), Rubiaceae (5.8%), Anacardiaceae (4.8%), Combretaceae (4.8%), Euphorbiaceae (4.8%), Malvaceae (4.8%), Rhamnaceae (4.8%), and Celastraceae (3.8%). Bark (33%), leaves (29%), and roots (19%) were the plant parts dominantly used to prepare remedies for ethnoveterinary medicine. An estimated 20% of woody plants have been screened for antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antioxidant, and cytotoxicity effects. Phytochemical profiles established a rich pool of valuable secondary metabolites (phenolic, flavonoids and condensed tannins) that may be responsible for the exerted biological activities. Overall, the significant portion of woody plants lacking empirical evidence on their biological effects indicates a major knowledge gap that requires more research efforts.

Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) has been used by local South African communities for centuries. However, the knowledge of EVM is under threat due to the influence of Western medicine and acculturation. This study aimed to document the knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in four villages within the Mahikeng Local Municipality to help preserve this valuable knowledge. The study used a qualitative research approach and targeted practitioners and holders of ethnoveterinary knowledge in four villages. Participants were recruited using key informants and snowball techniques, and in-depth interviews were conducted using semi-structured interview schedules. The data collected was analyzed thematically, and herbarium specimens were prepared from medicinal plants during field walks and sent to the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) for identification. The study documented the use of thirty-one medicinal plant species, with Senna italica (sebetebete) emerging as the most frequently used species for multiple animal health indications. The most common diseases treated using EVM were gala (general malaise due to bile reflux) and retained placenta. Participants strongly agreed on the cultural significance of plants for treating five animal diseases, including coughs and diarrhea. Although the study revealed a high level of trust in ethnoveterinary medicine among participants, they expressed concern regarding the loss of this knowledge due to the influence of Western medicine and acculturation. The study concluded that the indigenous knowledge and use of ethnoveterinary medicine was prevalent among livestock owners in the communities of the North West Province, and more studies need to be conducted in other areas to preserve this valuable knowledge.

Rapid growth in commercial poultry production is one of the major sources of Salmonella infections that leads to human salmonellosis. The two main Salmonella enterica serovars associated with human salmonellosis are enteritidis and typhimurium. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of S. enterica serovars Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium as well as their Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPI) and antibiotic resistance profiles in broiler chicken feces from slaughterhouses. A total of 480 fecal samples from broiler chickens that were grouped into 96 pooled samples were identified to have Salmonella spp. using the invA gene, whilst the Spy and sdfI genes were used to screen for the presence of S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium serovars, respectively, by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. The isolates were also screened for the presence of Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPIs) using PCR. The disc diffusion assay was performed to determine the antibiotic resistance profiles of the isolates. A total of 36 isolates were confirmed as Salmonella spp. through amplification of the invA gene. Out of 36 confirmed Salmonella spp. a total of 22 isolates were classified as S. Enteritidis (n = 8) and were S. Typhimurium (n = 14) serovars. All (n = 22) S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium isolates possessed the hilA (SPI-1), ssrB (SPI-2) and pagC (SPI-11) pathogenicity islands genes. Amongst these serovars, 50% of the isolates (n = 11/22) were resistant to tetracycline and nalidixic acid. Only 22% of the isolates, S. Typhimurium (13.6%) and S. Enteritidis (9.1%) demonstrated resistance against three or more antibiotic classes. The most detected antibiotic resistance genes were tet(K), mcr-1, sulI and strA with 13 (59.1%), 9 (40.9%), 9 (40.9%) and 7 (31.8%), respectively. The findings of this study revealed that S. Typhimurium is the most prevalent serotype detected in chicken feces. To reduce the risk to human health posed by salmonellosis, a stringent public health and food safety policy is required.

Campylobacter jejuni is a major cause of food-borne human gastroenteritis worldwide and is designated as a high priority antimicrobial-resistant pathogen by the World Health Organization (WHO). In this study, a total of 26 C. jejuni isolates from broiler chickens were screened for the presence of virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes by PCR. As a result, the study detected 11/26 (42.3), 9/26 (34.6), 8/26 (30.8), 7/26 (26.9), 6/26 (23.1), and 6/26 (23.1) of cdtC, pldA, cdtB, cdtA, cadF, and ciaB virulence genes, respectively, with seven of the isolates carrying more than two virulence genes. The majority of the isolates n=25 (96.1) were resistant to nalidixic acid, followed by n=21 (80.7), n=22 (84.6), and n=5 (19.2) for tetracycline, erythromycin, and ciprofloxacin, respectively. Most isolates were harboring catI (n=16; 84.2), catII (n=15; 78.9), catIII (n=10; 52.6), catIV (n=2; 10.5), floR (n=10; 52.6), ermB (n=14; 73.7), tetO (n=13; 68.4), tetA (n=9; 47.4), mcr-4 (n=8; 42.1), and ampC (n=2; 10.5). Meanwhile, mcr-1, mcr-2, mcr-3, mcr-5, tet(X), tet(P), and tet(W) genes were not detected in all isolates. Class I and Class II integrons were detected in 92.3 (n=24) and 65.4 (n=17) isolates, respectively. About 31 (8 of the 26 isolates) isolates were carrying more than two resistance genes. According to our knowledge, this is the first study to detect class II integrons in Campylobacter spp. (C. jejuni). The high prevalence of cdtA, cdtB, cdtC, cadF, pldA, and ciaB genes and antibiotic resistance genes in C. jejuni in this study indicates the pathogenic potential of these isolates. Majority of the isolates demonstrated resistance to nalidixic acid, tetracycline (tet), and erythromycin (ermB), which are the drugs of choice for treating Campylobacter infections. Therefore, these findings highlight the importance of implementing an efficient strategy to control Campylobacter in chickens and to reduce antimicrobial use in the poultry industry, which will help to prevent the spread of infections to humans.

This study analysed 60 dog food samples obtained from commercial outlets following the 2011 aflatoxicosis outbreak in South Africa. Results obtained from the selected dog food samples revealed that 87% of samples were contaminated with aflatoxins (AFs) (mainly AFB1 and AFB2). Amongst these samples, 45 (75%) were above the 20 parts per billion (ppb) set by most countries and 10 ppb regulated by the Fertilizers, Farm Feeds, Agricultural Remedies and Stock Remedies Act (Act No. 36 of 1947) for South Africa. In addition to AFs, other mycotoxins were also detected in the same samples with fumonisins (FBs) (mainly FB1and FB2) contaminating 98% of samples with 49 (81.81) above the tolerable limit of 1000 ppb in feedstuff set up by the Federal Drug Agency (FDA) (USA). The FBs mean obtained was 1556 ppb (Table 1) with contamination varying between 5.2 and 4653.8 ppb. Ochratoxin A (OTA) was detected in 41 (68%) of the analysed samples, with a mean value of 13.7 ppb. Amongst these samples, 15 (25%) were above the 20 ppb highest limit set by the Codex Alimentarius standard. Zearalenone (ZEA) was detected in 96% of samples, with a mean value of 354.1 ppb. Thirty-three samples (55%) were above the regulated level 1000 ppb tolerable limit. The recoveries were up to ten times the tolerable daily limits of the FDA and EU. The correlation between mycotoxin findings and clinical signs reported on patients presented for aflatoxicosis led to the conclusion that the outbreak was associated with the presence of other mycotoxins found simultaneously in the analysed samples by additive or synergistic effects.