Bee products, in particular honey, propolis and bee venom, are of growing scientific interest due to their broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity. In the face of increasing antibiotic resistance and the limitations of conventional therapies, natural bee-derived substances offer a promising alternative or support for the treatment of infections. This paper summarizes the current state of knowledge on the chemical composition, biological properties and antimicrobial activity of key bee products. The main mechanisms of action of honey, propolis and bee venom are presented, and their potential applications in the prevention and treatment of bacterial, viral and fungal infections are discussed. Data on their synergy with conventional drugs and prospects for use in medicine and pharmacology are also included. The available findings suggest that, with appropriate standardization and further preclinical and clinical analyses, bee products could become an effective support for the treatment of infections, especially those caused by pathogens resistant to standard therapies.

Background/Objectives: While ART effectively suppresses HIV viremia, many PLWH exhibit persistent immune dysfunction. This study aimed to assess immune recovery and immune exhaustion (PD-1/PD-L1 expression) in newly diagnosed versus long-term ART-treated individuals. Methods: We analyzed 79 PLWH: 52 newly diagnosed individuals (12-month follow-up) and 27 long-term-treated patients (Ukrainian refugees). Flow cytometry was used to evaluate CD4+ and CD8+ counts, the CD4+/CD8+ ratio, and PD-1/PD-L1 expression on CD3+, CD4+, and CD19+ lymphocytes. ART regimen and HIV subtype were included as covariates in linear regression models. Results: At 12 months, CD4+ counts were similar between groups (median 596.5 vs. 621 cells/μL, p = 0.22), but newly diagnosed patients had higher CD8+ counts (872 vs. 620 cells/μL, p = 0.028) and a lower CD4+/CD8+ ratio (0.57 vs. 1.05, p = 0.0027). Immune exhaustion markers were significantly elevated in newly diagnosed individuals: CD4+ PD-1+ T cells (24.4% vs. 3.85%, p = 0.0002) and CD3+ PD-1+ T cells (27.3% vs. 12.35%, p < 0.0001). Linear regression confirmed group membership independently predicted higher CD3+ (β = +21.92, p < 0.001), CD4+ (β = +28.87, p < 0.0001), and CD19+ (β = +8.73, p = 0.002) percentages. Lipid parameters and SCORE2 did not differ significantly. Conclusions: Despite virologic suppression and CD4+ recovery, immune exhaustion markers remain elevated in newly diagnosed PLWH, suggesting incomplete immune normalization. Traditional parameters (CD4+ count and CD4+/CD8+ ratio) may not fully capture immune status, warranting broader immunologic profiling in HIV care.

Melanoma is one of the most aggressive forms of cancer and the leading cause of death related to skin disease. Recent years have seen a significant increase in the number of cases of this type of cancer, underscoring the need to develop effective therapeutic strategies to control it. One of the most promising research directions in this field is anticancer immunotherapy, particularly the use of vaccines aimed at enhancing the body’s cellular immunity. Among the modern methods of this type, mRNA-based vaccines are prominent, gaining increasing importance as a potential tool in cancer therapy. Their main advantages include a relatively rapid and flexible production process, low production costs, and the ability to induce both humoral and cellular immune responses. Despite their numerous advantages, therapeutic mRNA vaccines also pose a number of scientific and technological challenges. These primarily concern the stability of mRNA molecules and their effective delivery to target cells. In this context, delivery systems such as lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) play a key role, protecting mRNA from degradation and facilitating its transport into the cell cytoplasm. Alternatively, systems based on biodegradable polymers are also being developed, which can provide controlled mRNA release and additional biocompatibility. However, before therapeutic mRNA vaccines become a routine component of cancer therapy, extensive clinical trials and a thorough understanding of their mechanisms of action are necessary. This paper provides an overview of the current knowledge regarding the structure and delivery methods of therapeutic mRNA vaccines, with a particular emphasis on their use in melanoma therapy. The results of clinical trials to date are also presented and the challenges associated with implementing this form of therapy in medical practice are discussed.

Introduction: The progressive immunological impairment associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is partially mediated by the programmed cell death protein‐1 (PD‐1)/programed death‐ligand 1(PD‐L1) inhibitory pathway. This investigation aims to evaluate the influence of PD‐1 on immune reconstitution in patients undergoing antiretroviral therapy (ART), with data visualized through principal component analysis (PCA). Materials and Methods: Data from 52 ART‐treated individuals achieving viral suppression were analyzed over 12 months. CD4+, CD8+, CD19+, and PD‐1/PD‐L1 expressions were quantified via flow cytometry at baseline and after 12 months, and immune recovery was assessed at CD4+ thresholds of 500 and 800/μL and CD4+/CD8+ ratios of >0.8 and >1.0 using linear and logistic regression. PCA was applied to visualize clustering of immune recovery patterns based on PD‐1/PD‐L1 expression levels and immune cell counts, with statistical significance evaluated using ANOVA. Results: The analyzed group of 52 patients was predominantly male (65.4%; n = 34). PD‐1/PD‐L1 expression showed modest associations with immune recovery. Higher PD‐L1 expression on CD3+ T‐cells at baseline was associated with a reduced likelihood of recovery to CD4+>500/μL (OR: 0.79; 95%CI: 0.62–0.99; p = 0.04). Linear regression demonstrated that increased PD‐L1 on CD4+ T‐cells and PD‐1 on CD19+ B‐cells positively correlated with higher CD4+/CD8+ ratios at follow‐up (coefficient: 0.035 and 0.03, respectively; p < 0.02), while logistic regression indicated that higher PD‐1 on CD3+ T‐cells increased the odds of recovery to CD4+>500/μL (OR: 1.03; 95% CI: 1.0036–1.07); = 0.03). Notably, this weak signal may result from a general increase in the number of lymphocytes during therapy. PCA did not reveal significant clustering of immune recovery patterns. Conclusion: PD‐1 and PD‐L1 expressions on immune cells are weakly associated with immune recovery metrics in individuals undergoing ART. Further research is needed to explore their role in immune reconstitution and potential clinical applications.

This study investigated the association between autoimmunity and immunodeficiency in pediatric patients, focusing on the case of a 15-year-old female diagnosed with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) and secondary Sjögren’s syndrome. The patient presented with a variety of symptoms, including joint pain, bronchial asthma, leukopenia, and skin lesions. Genetic testing revealed a de novo mutation in the DOCK8 gene, associated with DOCK8 deficiency, a condition usually associated with immunodeficiencies. The clinical course, diagnostic pathway, and treatment history are detailed, highlighting the importance of molecular diagnostics in understanding the genetic basis of rheumatic diseases. This case highlights the need to consider innate immune errors in patients with multiple diseases or atypical symptoms of rheumatic diseases. Furthermore, the study highlights the importance of targeted treatment, including genetic counseling, to improve patient outcomes. The observed association between autoimmunity and immune deficiency reinforces the importance of molecular testing in elucidating the causes of previously idiopathic rheumatic diseases, contributing to improved patient care and quality of life.