The risk assessment for carotid atherosclerotic lesions involves not only determining the degree of stenosis but also plaque morphology and its composition. Recently, carotid contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) has gained importance for evaluating vulnerable plaques. This review explores CEUS’s utility in detecting carotid plaque surface irregularities and ulcerations as well as intraplaque neovascularization and its alignment with histology. Initial indications suggest that CEUS might have the potential to anticipate cerebrovascular incidents. Nevertheless, there is a need for extensive, multicenter prospective studies that explore the relationships between CEUS observations and patient clinical outcomes in cases of carotid atherosclerotic disease.

Deep vein thrombosis impacts between 2.5% and 5% of a population. It mostly affects lower-extremity veins and presents itself as pain, swelling, tenderness, and erythema of an affected region. Thrombus forms when at least one factor from the Virchow's triad is present - vascular damage, venous stasis or hypercoagulability. A range of clinical manifestations is very wide, from asymptomatic to life-threatening course of the disease. Post-thrombotic syndrome is a frequent complication that results in venous hypertension, which leads to tissue edema, subcutaneous fibrosis, and subsequent ulceration. In the diagnostic process, predominantly D-dimer assay and ultrasonographic compression test are performed. Noninvasive treatment relies on anticoagulation therapy which is based on direct oral anticoagulants, parenteral anticoagulants, and vitamin K antagonists. In specific cases, there is an option of invasive treatment, which involves inserting a catheter into a vein with a thrombus. Afterward, a thrombus can be mechanically fragmented and aspired or dissolved with the use of a thrombolytic agent.

Introduction and purpose: Management of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is difficult since the exact pathogenic mechanism has not been established yet. Due to that fact, the substances registered to treat PCOS are still lacking efficacy and are associated with a number of adverse effects. The aim of this study is to review new possible treatment approaches. State of knowledge: Inositol administered alone or combined with oral contraceptive drugs improves patients’ hormonal status and alleviates the weight increase in comparison to oral contraceptive drugs on their own. Berberine reduces insulin resistance, improves lipid metabolism, and reduces inflammatory reactions. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists have a better weight loss effect and less severe adverse reactions than metformin. Thiazolidinediones combined with metformin improve ovulation rate, acne and increase SHGB levels. Thiazolidinediones have also less severe adverse reactions than metformin and can be useful in patients who are not able to tolerate metformin. Summary: The review has shown that inositol, berberine, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists andthiazolidinediones have promising therapeutic effects in terms of PCOS treatment, however, more research is needed to establish safety and efficacy of those agents. Nonetheless, results of this study may be utilized in the education of health specialists in endocrinology departments.

Introduction and Purpose: For many decades, botulinum toxin has been used in various fields of medicine, from aesthetic procedures to urology and neurology. It has become a highly effective and important therapeutic tool in the hands of a qualified physician. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of current research on the use of botulinum toxin in medicine, with a particular focus on its role in the treatment of various types of pain. Materials and Methods: A literature review was conducted using the PubMed and Google Scholar databases. Relevant keywords were used as search terms. Conclusion: Botulinum toxin, a neurotoxin with a good safety profile, is used in numerous branches of medicine and plays an increasingly important role in the treatment of various pain conditions. This review presents the current state of knowledge on the mechanism of action and analgesic properties of botulinum toxin and highlights its promising potential in the development of new therapeutic methods.

Acute limb ischemia (ALI) is a sudden reduction in limb perfusion that threatens limb viability and requires urgent intervention. It can present as an acute manifestation of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) or as an acute event in previously asymptomatic patients. This review outlines the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnostic approaches, and current treatment strategies for ALI. Emphasis is placed on differentiating thrombotic and embolic causes, the use of imaging modalities such as CT angiography and duplex ultrasonography, and the application of the Rutherford classification to guide treatment decisions. Immediate systemic anticoagulation remains the cornerstone of early management, followed by either surgical revascularization or endovascular therapies. While open surgery remains standard in many cases, newer percutaneous mechanical thrombectomy systems (PMT) have emerged as effective alternatives, particularly in patients with contraindications to surgery or thrombolysis. Despite advances in diagnosis and therapy, ALI continues to carry a high risk of amputation and mortality.

Lesch-Nyhan syndrome (LNS) is a rare X-linked disorder caused by mutations in the HPRT1 gene, which encodes an important enzyme in the purine salvage pathway. Symptoms of LNS include dystonia, gout, intellectual disability, and self-harm. Although the disease was described in 1964, it remains unclear how abnormalities in hypoxanthine and guanine recycling can lead to such significant neurological deficits. Several studies have proposed different hypotheses regarding the etiology of the disease and various treatment options have been proposed, but none have led to a satisfactory explanation of the pathophysiology of the disease. New technologies such as sequencing, optogenetics, genome editing, and induced pluripotent stem cells may provide a unique opportunity to map the precise sequential pathways from genotype to disease phenotype.