Ongoing climate change may affect the susceptibility of plants to attacks by pathogenic, mostly mycotoxigenic fungi with a consequent increase in the presence of mycotoxins. Fusarium fungi represent one of the most important producers of mycotoxins, and are also important pathogens of agricultural crops. Therefore, the main aim of the study was to estimate the impact of weather parameters on the natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins, such as deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins B₁ and B₂ (FUMs), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2, and HT-2 toxins (T-2/HT-2) in maize samples harvested from two neighboring countries, Serbia and Croatia, during a four-year production period (2018–2021). The frequency and contamination level of examined Fusarium mycotoxins varied by maize year of production and could be linked to weather conditions per investigated country. Among them, FUMs were found to be the most common contaminants (84–100%) of maize in both Serbia and Croatia. Additionally, a critical assessment of Fusarium mycotoxins occurrence in the last 10 years (2012–2021), for both Serbia and Croatia, was done. Results pointed out the highest contamination of maize from 2014, especially with DON and ZEN, in connection to extreme levels of precipitation observed in both Serbia and Croatia, whereas FUMs occurred with high prevalence from each of the ten investigated years.

Aflatoxins (AFs) represent the most important mycotoxin group, whose presence in food and feed poses significant global health and economic issues. The occurrence of AFs in maize is a burning problem worldwide, mainly attributed to droughts. In recent years, Serbia and Croatia faced climate changes followed by a warming trend. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to estimate the influence of weather on AFs occurrence in maize from Serbia and Croatia in the 2018–2021 period. The results indicate that hot and dry weather witnessed in the year 2021 resulted in the highest prevalence of AFs in maize samples in both Serbia (84%) and Croatia (40%). In maize harvested in 2018–2020, AFs occurred in less than, or around, 10% of Serbian and 20% of Croatian samples. In order to conduct a comprehensive study on the implications of climate change for the occurrence of AFs in maize grown in these two countries, the results of available studies performed in the last thirteen years were searched for and discussed.

This study presents data on the occurrence of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 in maize and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk and dairy products from Serbia in 2022. A total of 100 maize samples were analysed using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, while 107 cow and goat milk, besides dairy products were tested with an ELISA method. Aflatoxins contaminated 78% of the maize samples, with aflatoxin B1 as the most prevalent aflatoxin, also at the highest determined level. All milk samples tested positive for AFM1, while contamination in dairy products ranged from 14% to 100%. The hot and dry weather during the 2022 maize growing season, characterised by moderate to extreme drought conditions, significantly increased maize contamination with aflatoxins, impacting subsequent milk and dairy products contamination. The findings of this study confirm the continuous trend and persistent challenge in Serbia concerning the prevalence of aflatoxins in maize and milk, closely linked to climate change.

Moniliformin (MON) represents one of the most widespread emerging mycotoxins, whose presence in food and feed can potentially cause harmful effects on the health of both the public and animals. In order to investigate MON occurrence, a total of four hundred (n = 400) samples of unprocessed maize were sampled from different regions (Bačka, Banat, and Srem) of Serbia during a period of four years (2018–2021) and were analyzed using a validated liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. The influence of regional differences and variations from year to year in terms of weather conditions on the occurrence of MON was also assessed. The obtained validation parameters indicated that the LC-MS/MS method is applicable to the determination of MON in maize samples. It can be observed from the acquired findings that all samples were contaminated with MON, while concentration levels varied between the samples, especially from different sampling years. The maize samples showed the greatest levels of MON concentration during the dry and hot climatic conditions experienced in 2021. In maize samples harvested in the period 2018–2020, the MON concentration levels detected were about two to three times lower compared to the year 2021. Additionally, a comprehensive investigation into the correlation between weather conditions and the occurrence of MON in maize grown in Serbia was undertaken by reviewing the outcomes of research undertaken in the past decade.

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi, known for their chemical and thermal stability, which makes them resistant to common food and feed processing methods. These toxins can contaminate food and feed, and cause a range of toxic effects upon ingestion, including mutagenic, teratogenic, carcinogenic, immunotoxic, neurotoxic, hepatotoxic, and dermatotoxic effects. In recent years, the application of liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry has grown significantly for mycotoxin analysis, owing to its remarkable sensitivity and specificity. Recent literature highlights using various liquid chromatography systems for mycotoxin analysis, typically integrated with octadecylsilane columns and employing gradient elution with mobile phases consisting of water, organic solvents, and appropriate optional modifiers. The studies reviewed predominantly utilized electrospray ionization in positive and negative modes and mass spectrometric analysis in multiple reactions monitoring mode to ensure precise multi-mycotoxin quantification. Specific configurations of liquid chromatography systems, such as ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with different column types, and mass spectrometers, including triple quadrupole and QTrap tandem mass spectrometry systems, were mainly used. These advancements underscore the ongoing refinement and standardization of methodologies for accurate and efficient mycotoxin analysis in food matrices.

Contamination of milk and dairy products with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a toxic metabolite of aflatoxin B1 from animal feed, continues to pose a persistent food safety concern. Monitoring the prevalence and concentration of AFM1 in dairy products is critical for public health protection, regulatory compliance, and consumer safety. This study aimed to assess the occurrence and concentration of AFM1 in milk and selected dairy products available on the Serbian market in 2024. A total of 96 samples, including milk, yoghurt, sour milk, kefir, sour cream, cheeses, milk-based spreads, goat milk products, and imported dairy products, were collected and analysed using an ELISA method. AFM1 was detected across all analysed product categories, with prevalence ranging from 50 % in cheeses and milk-based spread products to 100 % in milk, yoghurt, kefir, whey, and goat milk products. Mean concentrations ranged from 0.058 µg/kg in milk to 0.226 µg/kg in cheese and milk-based spreads, with the highest individual value (0.573 µg/kg) detected in a cheese spread. Although all milk samples complied with the Serbian limit (0.25 µg/kg), 63 % exceeded the stricter European Union reference value of 0.05 µg/kg. Concentrations above 0.05 µg/kg were also frequently observed in fermented products, particularly sour cream (78 %), yoghurt (62 %), and kefir (50 %), whereas imported products showed generally lower concentrations. Two-way ANOVA of log₁₀-transformed data showed a significant effect of product origin (p<0.001), with lower AFM1 levels in imported compared to domestic products. These findings confirm that AFM1 contamination persists as a food safety concern in Serbia and highlight the need for continuous monitoring and improved control of aflatoxin contamination in animal feed, especially under conditions of increasing climatic variability.