In shield tunneling projects, the selection of an accurate model to calculate the mechanical response of segment structure plays a crucial role in the design and cost of the project. The shell–spring and beam–spring models are two widely used methods for this purpose. However, it is still not clear how accurate and different these models are in calculation results under surcharge load. Therefore, to accurately calculate the internal forces and deformation of the segment structure and clarify the difference between the two models’ results, the shell–spring and beam–spring models were established based on a subway shield tunnel project in Zhengzhou city. The reliability of the models was verified by comparing and analyzing the differences in deformation results between the models and field measurements. Furthermore, the safety of the segment structure was evaluated according to the ultimate bearing capacity of the normal section. The results declare that: (1) In the shell–spring model, the internal force gradually reduces from the edges towards the center of the segment width, and the shield segment exhibits a prominent non-plane strain state. (2) The internal force of the beam–spring model is larger than that of the shell–spring model. The axial force difference between the two models is relatively small; meanwhile, there is a larger disparity in the bending moment. However, with an increase in surcharge loading, the discrepancy in internal forces between the two models gradually decreases. (3) The calculation results of the shell–spring model are close to the field-measured values and the shield tunnel model test values, which verifies the accuracy and reliability of the shell–spring model. Therefore, it is more reasonable to use the shell–spring model to calculate the mechanical response of the segment structure. (4) With an increase in surcharge loading, the safety of the shield tunnel decreases gradually. Therefore, surcharge loading above the shield tunnel should be reasonably controlled to meet the requirements of the normal use of the shield segment. This manuscript aims to provide a reference for the future design and optimization of the shield tunnels’ lining structure.

Increasing the frequency and duration of extreme heat events significantly compromises asphalt pavement performance, particularly in critical urban infrastructure such as heavily trafficked pavements, BRT lanes, and intersections subjected to slow-moving heavy traffic under extreme temperatures. This study systematically investigates rutting formation mechanisms through integrated theoretical and numerical approaches, addressing significant knowledge gaps regarding rutting evolution under coupled extreme-temperature (70 °C), heavy-load (100 kN–225 kN), and braking conditions (1 m/s²–7 m/s²). A three-dimensional thermo-mechanical finite element model integrating solar radiation heat transfer with the Bailey–Norton creep law was developed to quantify synergistic effects of axle loads, travel speeds, and braking accelerations. Results demonstrate that when the pavement surface temperature rises from 34 °C to 70 °C, the rutting depth is increased by 4.83 times. When the axle load is increased from 100 kN to 225 kN, the rutting of conventional asphalt pavements under 70 °C is increased by 56.4%. Rutting is exacerbated by braking acceleration; due to prolonged loading duration under low acceleration, the rutting depth is increased by 30–40% compared with that under emergency braking. These findings establish theoretical foundations for optimizing pavement design and material selection in slow-moving heavy-load environments, delivering significant engineering value for transportation infrastructure.

This study analyzes the deformation and internal force changes of the main tunnel during the cutting process of the pipe jacking method for cross passages. A combination of field monitoring and numerical simulation was used to investigate a construction case of the pipe jacking method for the cross passage of Zhengzhou Metro Line 12. The study provides an in-depth analysis of the stress characteristics of the main tunnel structure during the segment-cutting process. The research findings indicate that during the pre-support stage, the internal support system helps to disperse external water and soil pressure, thereby reducing the internal forces and deformation of the tunnel. In the segment-cutting stage, the horizontal diameter of the main tunnel near the hole location gradually increases, while the vertical diameter decreases. At the same time, the stress on the bolts also rises, with the circumferential bolt stress exceeding that of the longitudinal bolts, eventually approaching their yield strength. The upper and lower ends of the tunnel opening are cut to form cantilever ends, leading to inward converging deformation. This deformation causes the internal forces to disperse toward both sides of the opening, resulting in a noticeable increase in internal force at the 90° position of the semi-cutting ring. The research findings provide a theoretical reference for understanding the deformation patterns and internal force transfer mechanisms of the main tunnel structure during the construction process of cross passages using the pipe jacking method.

The indirect tensile test plays a crucial role in experimental investigations of brittle material properties. In this study, a mechanical analysis model of the rectangular test block is established based on the theory of elastic mechanics for the characteristics of the indirect tensile test. The theoretical solution of the triangular series is derived for the rectangular test block under the locally distributed load. The finite element simulation results and splitting test results were compared with the theoretical results. The results of the study verify the accuracy of the theoretical solutions. Based on the proposed analytical solution, the effects of loading width and length-to-height ratio (h/l) of local loading on the measured tensile strength of test block are discussed. The results demonstrate that the tensile strength of the test block increases as the loading width expands, and the rate of growth in the recorded tensile strength gradually stabilizes. The variation in loading width affects the location of crack initiation points during the concrete test block splitting tests. When the loading width exceeds 6% of the side length of test block, the cracking point is positioned at the center of test block, ensuring the effectiveness of the splitting test. As the length-to-height ratio of the test block increases, there is a general upward trend in the measured tensile strength. When h/l < 0.6, the measured tensile strength initially increases before decreasing. However, when h/l > 0.6, the measured tensile strength consistently increases, with the rate of increase gradually diminishing until it stabilizes. The length-to-height ratio also significantly influences the location of the cracking point in the test block. As the length-to-height ratio increases, the cracking point initially shifts from around the center to the central point and then further from the center toward the edge. To ensure that the location of the crack initiation point is in the center of the specimen and that the tensile strength is close to the measured result, the length to height ratio can be chosen at around 0.85.

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