This review highlights the significant impact of air quality, specifically particulate matter (PM), on cognitive decline and age-related diseases in the elderly. Despite established links to other pathologies, such as respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses, there is a pressing need for increased attention to the association between air pollution and cognitive aging, given the rising prevalence of neurocognitive disorders. PM sources are from diverse origins, including industrial activities and combustion engines, categorized into PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and ultrafine PM (UFPM), and emphasized health risks from both outdoor and indoor exposure. Long-term PM exposure, notably PM_2.5, has correlated with declines in cognitive function, with a specific vulnerability observed in women. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been explored due to the interplay between them, PM exposure, and human aging, highlighting the crucial role of EVs, especially exosomes, in mediating the complex relationship between PM exposure and chronic diseases, particularly neurological disorders. To sum up, we have compiled the pieces of evidence that show the potential contribution of PM exposure to cognitive aging and the role of EVs in mediating PM-induced cognitive impairment, which presents a promising avenue for future research and development of therapeutic strategies. Finally, this review emphasizes the need for policy changes and increased public awareness to mitigate air pollution, especially among vulnerable populations such as the elderly.

We tested the hypothesis that metacognition—the ability to evaluate one’s own cognitive processes and mental states—is modulated by cultural values. We used retrospective confidence ratings to objectively measure metacognition in a mental rotation task in three culturally different regions: the Middle East (Saudi Arabia), Western Europe (Portugal) and the Far East (China). Our data support the theory that metacognition is social in nature, at least to some extent, and is influenced by culture. Differences in metacognition between societies can be accounted for by cultural values pertaining to individualism and uncertainty avoidance. Lower individualism and greater uncertainty avoidance tend to be associated with higher metacognitive abilities. Sex-based differences typically observed in mental rotation do not emerge at the metacognitive level, with both males and females in all three societies efficiently detecting those responses when they are more likely to make a mistake. Metacognitive bias—the tendency to be over- or underconfident in one’s own decisions—might be modulated by cultural differences in the masculinity cultural dimension. However, this bias seems to be independent of metacognitive sensitivity and detecting decisions with a heightened likelihood of an error.