In the face of evolving healthcare challenges, the utilization of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has emerged as a compelling solution due to their unique properties and versatile applications. The aim of this study was the synthesis and characterization of novel AgNPs (SB-AgNPs and SG-AgNPs, respectively) using Salvia blepharophylla and Salvia greggii leaf extracts and the evaluation of their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic activities. Several analytical instrumental techniques were utilized for the characterization of SB-AgNPs and SG-AgNPs, including UV–visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), Fourier transmission infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). FTIR analysis identified various functional groups in the leaf extracts and nanoparticles, suggesting the involvement of phytochemicals as reducing and stabilizing agents. High-resolution TEM images displayed predominantly spherical nanoparticles with average sizes of 52.4 nm for SB-AgNPs and 62.5 nm for SG-AgNPs. Both SB-AgNPs and SG-AgNPs demonstrated remarkable antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes and Gram-negative bacteria Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli. SB-AgNPs and SG-AgNPs also exhibited 90.2 ± 1.34% and 89.5 ± 1.5% DPPH scavenging and 86.5 ± 1.7% and 80.5 ± 1.2% α-amylase inhibition, respectively, at a concentration of 100 μg mL⁻¹. Overall, AgNPs synthesized using S. blepharophylla and Salvia greggii leaf extracts may serve as potential candidates for antibacterial, antioxidant, and antidiabetic agents. Consequently, this study provides viable solutions to mitigate the current crisis of antibiotic resistance and to efficiently combat antimicrobial infections and Type 2 diabetes.

Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactions occur in many reactions of global importance, including H2 evolution, among other applications. Surprisingly, knowledge gaps remain in our fundamental understanding of PCET and CPET reactions. In recent studies graphitic electrode systems that are modified by o-phenylenediamines have been singled out as an ideal platform for studying single-site CPET. Although this CPET experimental platform has been established, synthetic access to 4,5-o- phenylenediamines remains limited. Herein we discuss three distinct synthetic strategies aimed toward developing a modular synthetic route to symmetrical and asymmetrical 4,5-o-phenylenediamines. We demonstrate the utility of 4,5-o-dinitrobenzenes as relatively stable precursors to 4,5-o- phenylenediamines and a modular route to make 4,5-o-phenylenediamines in just 2-4 steps from commercial material.