In general, formed components are lightweight as well as highly economic and resource efficient. However, forming-induced ductile damage, which particularly affects the formation and growth of pores, has not been considered in the design of components so far. Therefore, an evaluation of forming-induced ductile damage would enable an improved design and take better advantage of the lightweight nature as it affects the static and dynamic mechanical material properties. To quantify the amount, morphology and distribution of the pores, advanced scanning electron microscopy (SEM) methods such as scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and electron channeling contrast imaging (ECCI) were used. Image segmentation using a deep learning algorithm was applied to reproducibly separate the pores from inclusions such as manganese sulfide inclusions. This was achieved via layer-by-layer ablation of the case-hardened steel 16MnCrS5 (DIN 1.7139, AISI/SAE 5115) with a focused ion beam (FIB). The resulting images were reconstructed in a 3D model to gain a mechanism-based understanding beyond the previous 2D investigations.

As climate change and resource scarcity intensify, the need for energy efficiency, emissions reduction, and resource conservation grows. Forming technology offers significant potential for light weighting, cost and resource efficiency. However, current component design often neglects forming-related damage, such as voids, focusing primarily on mechanical properties and safety factors. Integrating knowledge of these voids into the design process can improve efficiency and increase light weighting potential. Advanced scanning electron methods, such as electron contrast channeling imaging, evaluated forming-induced damage and correlated it with fatigue properties. Crack initiation occurred mainly near manganese sulfide inclusions or near-surface voids, influencing crack propagation. Analyzing void distribution using advanced secondary electron methods enabled the development of a 3D volume model.

With hydrogen being a promising candidate for many future and current energy applications, there is a need for material-testing solutions, which can represent hydrogen charging under superimposed mechanical loading. Usage of high purity gaseous hydrogen under high pressure in commercial solutions entails huge costs and also potential safety concerns. Therefore, a setup was developed utilizing a customized electrochemical charging cell built into a dynamic testing system. With this setup, two heat treatment states of AISI 4140 (DIN 1.7225, 42CrMo4) with varying yield and ultimate tensile strength were characterized in constant amplitude tests. S-N (Woehler) curves differ between heat-treated states, and when comparing testing in air with in situ cathodic hydrogen-charged specimens, hydrogen proves to be detrimental to the material properties. For both states considered, the presence of hydrogen leads to a reduction in fatigue life. Fractographic analyses by scanning electron microscopy reveals that for in situ cathodic hydrogen-charged specimens, the crack initiation mechanisms change for the higher strength heat treatment state.

The increasing impact of climate change and resource scarcity demands energy-efficient and resource-conserving manufacturing strategies. Metal forming offers substantial potential for lightweight construction and material efficiency. Forming-induced ductile damage, particularly void nucleation and growth, is often neglected in component design. Industrial practice still relies mainly on macroscopic mechanical properties and safety factors, while microstructural damage evolution and its influence on fatigue performance are largely disregarded. This study investigates load-path-dependent fatigue behavior and damage mechanisms using axial and combined axial–torsional fatigue tests. Particular attention is given to the phase shift d between axial and torsional loading, which strongly affects fatigue life. The results indicate that axial loading dominates damage evolution, while load path interactions significantly change fatigue performance. A phase shift of d = 90° resulted in a significant increase in the number of cycles to failure, N_f, for different total strain amplitudes with the same rotational angle amplitude of θ = 10°. These findings highlight the importance of considering load-path-sensitive stress states in fatigue assessment of formed components. Fractographic analyses, AI-assisted 3D reconstruction, and confocal laser scanning microscopy support the experimental results.