Cultures in Mediterranean climate zones (MCZs) around the world have long been reliant on groundwater and springs as freshwater sources. While their ecology and cultural sustainability are recognized as critically important, inter-relationships between springs and culture in MCZs have received less attention. Here we augmented a global literature review with case studies in MCZ cultural landscapes to examine the diversity and intensity of cultural and socio-economic relationships on spring ecohydrogeology. MCZs are often oriented on western and southern coasts in tectonically active landscapes which control aquifer structure, the prevalence of westerly winds, and aridity, and generally expose associated habitats and cultures to harsh afternoon sunlight. Cultural appreciation and appropriation of springs ranges widely, from their use as subsistence water supplies to their roles in profound traditions such as Greco-Roman nymphalea as well as Asian and Abrahamic spiritual cleansing and baptism. The abandonment of traditional ways of life, such as rural livestock production, for urban ones has shifted impacts on aquifers from local to regional groundwater exploitation. The commoditization of water resources for regional agricultural, industrial (e.g., mining, water bottling, geothermal resorts), and urban uses is placing ever-increasing unsustainable demands on aquifers and spring ecosystems. When the regional economic value of springs approaches or exceeds local cultural values, these irreplaceable aquatic ecosystems are often degraded, over-looked, and lost. Sustainable stewardship of springs and the aquifers that support them is a poorly recognized but central conservation challenge for modern Mediterranean societies as they face impending impacts of global climate change. Solutions to this crisis require education, societal dialogue, and improved policy and implementation.

Given the limited understanding of species diversity and ecological preferences of diatoms of the genus Navicula in spring ecosystems, herein we present and describe as species new to science, Navicula aquaesuavis Lange-Bert., Levkov, Cid-Rodríguez, A.A.Saber and Cantonati sp. nov. This species was collected from a mountain spring located above the tree line at 1613 m a.s.l. in the Northern Apennines. The Fontana del Vescovo (Bishop’s spring), which is the locus classicus of the new species, has a low conductivity (60–70 µS cm⁻¹), temperature of ca. 5 °C, circumneutral pH (7.3–7.5), relatively low nitrate (ca. 1 mg L⁻¹), and also suffered from a discharge reduction from 1 to 0.1 L s⁻¹ from 2011 to 2023. The putative new species was confirmed by a second finding in Northern Macedonia, and we thoroughly document this second population as well. We seized the opportunity to describe this new Navicula and review the global literature on the diatom genus Navicula in spring ecosystems. Using the results of this review and our own databases on springs and wells in central Europe and Egypt, we discuss the main Navicula species and their environmental preferences in spring habitats.

Springs are biodiversity hotspots and climate refugia, yet they remain among the most overlooked and threatened freshwater ecosystems, largely absent from regional monitoring programs. In the Emilia-Romagna Region (Northern Apennines, Italy), where more than 8400 springs are documented but most persist as unmonitored “ghost springs”, we developed and tested an ecohydrogeological framework to support their long-term monitoring and conservation. Twenty-five springs were selected as representatives of five strategic zones, which we identify, defined by aquifer type (Ophiolites, Turbiditic Sandstones, Shallow Marine Sandstones, Triassic Gypsum, and lowland Fontanili) and characterized through integrated hydrogeological, hydrochemical, and biological sampling. Benthic diatoms (393 species in 69 genera) growing on three different substrates (epibryon, epilithon and epipelon) per spring, vegetation, and physical and chemical parameters were analyzed. Diatom assemblage composition differed significantly among zones (PERMANOVA, p < 0.001), structured primarily by electrical conductivity between sites (community level) and by discharge regime between substrates (microhabitat level); the proportion of aerial diatoms (88 species) proved a useful indicator of discharge fluctuations, inferable from a single biological sample. Threatened taxa (41% of evaluated species) concentrated in the ridge zones. Although calibrated in the Northern Apennines, the five-zone framework offers a biologically validated and transferable tool to other regions for spring conservation as sentinel ecosystems under climate change and anthropogenic exploitation.

Cultures in Mediterranean climate zones (MCZs) around the world have long been reliant on groundwater and springs as freshwater sources. While their ecology and cultural sustainability are recognized as critically important, inter-relationships between springs and culture in MCZs has received little attention. Here we augmented a global literature review with case studies in MCZ cultural landscapes to examine the intensity of cultural and socio-economic impacts on springs ecohydrogeology. MCZs are often oriented on the west and southern coasts in tectonically active landscapes, which control aquifer structure, the prevalence of westerly winds, and aridity, and generally expose associated habitats to harsh, afternoon sunlight. Cultural appreciation and appropriation of springs ranges widely, from their use as subsitence supplies to profound traditions, such as Greco-Roman nymphs, and Asian and Abrahamic spiritual cleansing and baptism. Commoditization of water resources for agriculture, industry (e.g., mining, water bottling, geothermal resorts), and urban needs is placing ever-increasing, non-sustainable demands on aquifers and springs. When economic values approach or exceed cultural values, these irreplaceable aquatic resources are degraded and lost. Sustainable stewardship of springs and the aquifers that support them are a little-recognized, but central conservation challenge for modern society facing global climate changes.