Hydatid cysts have been widely recognized for decades as a common medical problem that affects millions of people. A revolution in medical treatment may be on the prospect of nanotechnology enhancing chemotherapy against hydatid cysts. An overview of nanotechnology’s impact on chemotherapeutics is presented in the current review. It discusses some of the challenges as well as some of the opportunities. The application of nanotechnology to enhance chemotherapy against hydatid cysts is what this review will explore. Nanotechnology is a critical component of delivering therapeutic agents with greater precision and efficiency and targeting hydatid cysts with better efficacy, and minimizing interference with surrounding tissue. However, there are biodistribution challenges, toxicity, and resistance problems associated with nanotherapeutics. Additionally, nanobiosensors are being investigated to enable the early diagnosis of hydatid cysts. A nanobiosensor can detect hydatid cysts by catching them early, non-invasively, rapidly, and accurately. The sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic tests can be enhanced with nanobiosensors because they take advantage of the unique properties of nanomaterials. By providing more precise and customized treatment options for hydatid cysts, nanotechnology may improve therapeutic options and strategies for diagnosing the disease. In conclusion, treatment with nanotechnology to treat hydatid cysts is potentially effective but presents many obstacles. Furthermore, nanobiosensors are being integrated into diagnostic techniques, as well as helping to diagnose patients earlier and more accurately.

Parasitic infections remain a serious public health issue globally, requiring prompt and precise diagnosis. Traditional diagnostic techniques, such as microscopic examinations, immunological methods, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and molecular tests, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), are standard tools for parasite identification. However, traditional methods are time-consuming and have less sensitivity and specificity than nanobiosensors. Hence, the current review aims to analyze the nanobiosensors in detecting globally important human parasites, i.e., Plasmodium, Leishmania, Echinococcus, Schistosoma, and Taenia, emphasizing their significance in the early detection and analyzing their future challenges. Nanobiosensors provide efficient, sensitive, and rapid diagnosis of parasites’ antigens or genetic material using nanomaterials, such as nanowires, quantum dots (QDs), metallic nanoparticles, and carbon nanotubes, as well as identification of biomarkers, including excretory–secretory products and microRNAs. Nanobiosensors can utilize diverse nanomaterials such as gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for the detection of Plasmodium falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP2) in Plasmodium, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) functionalized with anti-EgAgB antibodies for Echinococcus, and QDs labeled with DNA probes for the detection of Leishmania kDNA. Regarding Schistosoma, graphene oxide (GO)-based nanobiosensors with a soluble egg antigen (SEA) binding, and for Taenia, metallic nanobiosensors can detect parasites’ biomarkers even at low concentrations. Challenges for using nanobiosensors in parasitic infection diagnosis include limitations in mass production, biological matrix interference, and the need for standardization. Development of multiplex nanobiosensors using polymer nanofibers or hybrid nanoparticles for simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens, along with integration of lab-on-a-chip technology for point-of-care (PoC) platforms, is an important future prospect that needs to be worked on. In conclusion, considering the rapidly ongoing advancement of nanobiosensors, it is expected that they will aid the detection, treatment, and management of parasitic infections by providing new avenues for early detection, improved treatment, and improved disease management in the future. Graphical Abstract

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a zoonotic disease affecting humans and animals. Despite a lack of clarity about many details of parasite–intermediate host interactions, the nature of the immune responses triggered by hydatid infection has revealed new perspectives. This study discusses the latest advances in elucidating the immunologic mechanism of echinococcosis and its detection and potential approaches to enhance serodiagnosis accuracy. Moreover, nanobiosensors have been evaluated according to their potential to improve treatment efficiency and aid in an early diagnosis of cystic echinococcosis. The serum of an intermediate host can diagnose CE by analyzing antibodies induced by Echinococcus granulosus. Among the most notable features of this method are its noninvasive ability and high sensitivity, both of which make it an excellent tool for clinical diagnosis. Several serological tests, including ELISAs and immunoblotting, can detect these antibodies to assess the disease’s state and determine the treatment outcome. A thorough understanding of what cross-reactivity means and the stage of the disease are crucial to interpreting serological results. Nanobiosensors have also proven better than conventional biosensors in detecting hydatid cysts. Additionally, they are highly sensitive and versatile when detecting specific biomarkers, improving diagnostic accuracy. These immunomodulatory molecules, induced by E. granulosus, are a good candidate for diagnosing cystic echinococcosis because they alter intermediate host immune responses. Hydatid cyst detection is also enhanced through nanobiosensors, which provide better accuracy.

Cancer is a life-threatening disease that remains a global health problem, with millions of people diagnosed yearly. Despite significant progress in cancer treatment, conventional chemotherapy still faces several limitations, including poor solubility, low bioavailability, lack of selectivity, and severe side effects. Therefore, alternative therapeutic strategies are necessary to improve cancer therapy. This review aimed to provide an updated overview of phytosome complexes and their potential application in cancer therapy, including their formulation techniques, transportation mechanism through phytosome, and recent investigations on their efficacy in treating different types of cancers. In recent years, nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach to cancer therapy, as it enables the delivery of therapeutic agents to the tumor site with higher selectivity and efficiency. Phytosomes are a nanotechnology-based drug delivery system conjugating plant extracts or phytoconstituents with phospholipids. This conjugation results in the formation of a complex with improved solubility, stability, and bioavailability. Phytosomes have been shown to enhance the pharmacokinetic profile of phytoactive compounds, allowing for better targeting and sustained release. Phytosomes of curcumin, resveratrol, and quercetin have demonstrated anticancer properties in various in vitro and in vivo models. Moreover, phytosomes have been used to deliver chemotherapeutic agents, such as paclitaxel, docetaxel, and camptothecin, with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity. Phytosome complexes offer a promising platform for cancer therapy due to their ability to enhance the bioavailability and efficacy of phytoactive compounds. Incorporating phytosomes in cancer therapy could lead to the development of more effective and less toxic treatments for different types of cancers. Further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanism of action of phytosomes and to optimize their formulation for clinical use.