Introduction: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of Biofeedback Training in normoxic and normobaric hypoxic conditions on reaction times in judo athletes. Material and methods: The participants in the experimental group underwent thetha/beta1 training under simulated hypoxic conditions in a laboratory equipped with a normobaric hypoxia generation system (LOS-HYP1/3NU, Lowoxygen Systems, Germany), at a simulated altitude of 2500m above sea level (FiO2 = 15.5%). Each cycle of the study consisted of 15 training sessions. The training sessions lasted for 20 minutes, with 4 sets of 4 minutes each and a 1-minute break in between. In the initial phase, participants underwent EEG biofeedback training every other day. The control group followed the same frequency and duration of EEG biofeedback training sessions as the experimental group and demonstrated an identical pattern, but under normoxia conditions. Results: The results indicated significant differences in Theta/Beta ratio values after the 5th, 11th, and 15th training sessions between the hypoxia and normoxia groups. Moreover, theta/beta1 protocol in normobaric hypoxic conditions statistically significantly improved their complex reaction times after each training cycle compared to the control group in normoxia conditions. Conclusions: The findings indicate that neurofeedback training in normobaric hypoxia conditions may considerably enhance reaction skills, particularly complex reactions, in a sports context.

Background: Electromyographic (EMG) normalization is essential for accurately measuring muscle activity across different populations and tasks. Various methods, including Maxi-mum Voluntary Isometric Contraction (MVIC) and Recurrence Quantification Analysis (RQA), have been employed to improve measurement reliability. However, discrepancies in results across studies necessitate a comprehensive review of normalization techniques. Objective: This report analyzed 40 research studies to evaluate EMG normalization and assessment methods, focusing on their reliability, applicability, and effectiveness across healthy and clinical populations. Methods: The studies employed a range of normalization techniques, including MVIC, submaximal con-tractions, task-specific approaches, and advanced methods such as RQA and Pre-Fatigue Maximal Voluntary Contraction (PFMVC). The analysis considered the suitability of each method based on participant characteristics and movement tasks. Results: MVIC demonstrated consistent reliability in healthy populations, whereas dynamic and task-specific normalization methods were advan-tageous in specific research contexts. Clinical studies reported difficulties in performing maximal contractions, suggesting the need for alternative normalization methods for patients. Emerging techniques, such as RQA and PFMVC, required specialized expertise and resources. Conclusion: Method selection should align with study parameters, considering population characteristics and task demands. Researchers highlighted trade-offs between reliability, validity, and feasibility, emphasizing the need for further comparative research to refine EMG normalization practices.

The purpose of the investigation was to determine the influence of a four-week unilateral (UNI) and bilateral (BIL) resistance training program on peak torque and peak power of the lower limbs in soccer players. Background: We evaluated the effects of a 3:1 step load training program using UNI and BIL forms of exercises on the level of peak torque and peak power of the knee joint extensors and flexors. Methods: The study included 16 division I soccer players having the highest number of matches played in the first round of the season. The motor tests included isokinetic evaluation of peak torque and peak power of the extensors and flexors of the knee joint. Results: The results showed that both types of training sessions were equally effective. Only in terms of power during knee flexion, unilateral training contributed to improvement, whereas bilateral training did not. Conclusions: The use of periodization using a step load progression based on an extended eccentric phase of the movement during the preseason period in combination with UNI training may increase peak torque and peak power of knee flexors and extensors in soccer players.

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of step load in hypoxia on the effectiveness of preoperative rehabilitation (PR) and hormone levels based on a case study. Introduction: We assessed the impact of variables such as rate of movement and time under tension (TUT) in normobaric hypoxia on the levels of growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and erythropoietin (EPO). Additionally, the impact of step load on the hypertrophy and strength of knee extensors and flexors was assessed. Methods: The work uses a case study, the research subject of which was a 23-year-old female professional handball player. The tests included an isokinetic assessment of the peak torque of knee extensors and flexors as well as body composition analysis. Results: The results showed a more than (10.81-fold) increase in GH after the microcycle with time under tension (TUT). The deficit between the lower limbs was also reduced. Conclusions: Using a hypoxic environment based on an appropriate altitude, combined with changes such as a short rest break between sets and a controlled tempo of movement with an eccentric phase, TUT may offer an alternative to the PR process, especially among athletes who care about fast RTS.

Spasticity and chronic pain are common secondary complications following spinal cord injury (SCI), significantly impacting functional recovery and quality of life. Robot-assisted gait training (RAGT) using the Lokomat has been proposed as an effective rehabilitation method to improve motor function and reduce these symptoms. However, the impact of training frequency on rehabilitation outcomes remains unclear, particularly in athletes and physically active individuals. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of Lokomat training on spasticity reduction, pain alleviation, and improvements in gait function and lower limb muscle strength in athletes and physically active individuals with partial SCI. A total of 45 participants (AIS B-D, chronic SCI) were randomly assigned to three groups: group A (n = 15): Lokomat training once per week, group B (n = 15): Lokomat training twice per week, and group C (n = 15): conventional rehabilitation (control group). Spasticity (SCI-SET), pain (VAS), gait function (WISCI II), and muscle strength (LEMS) were assessed at baseline, week 6, and week 12. Group B (2x/week) demonstrated the greatest improvements, with spasticity and pain reductions of ~50% (p < 0.01, large effect sizes). Gait function (WISCI II) and muscle strength (LEMS) significantly improved compared to Group A (1x/week) and Group C (p < 0.05). Group A showed moderate improvements, while Group C exhibited minimal, non-significant changes. Higher Lokomat training frequency (2x/week) significantly enhances spasticity reduction, pain relief, gait function, and muscle strength recovery. These findings support intensive RAGT protocols for SCI rehabilitation, particularly in athletes seeking optimal functional recovery. A minimum of 2 sessions per week is recommended for maximal neuroplasticity-driven recovery, reinforcing the importance of training intensity and consistency in SCI rehabilitation.

Background: This study examines the progression of sprinting performance across the 100m, 200m, and 400m events from 1976 to 2024, highlighting the influence of technological advancements and regulatory changes. Over the past decades, sprinting has been significantly shaped by developments in track surfaces, footwear technology, training methodologies, and regulatory frameworks. Understanding these factors is essential for assessing how sprint times have evolved and what future trends might emerge. Materials and methods: Utilizing a comprehensive dataset from international athletics federations, this research applies time series analysis, regression modeling, and variance testing to assess trends, gender disparities, and performance variability. Data sources include official race results, biomechanical studies, and historical records of rule changes. Analytical techniques focus on identifying patterns of improvement, stabilization phases, and the impact of external factors such as anti-doping policies and equipment innovations. Results: Findings indicate significant improvements in sprint times, particularly during periods of enhanced track surfaces, footwear innovations, and refined training methodologies. Statistical analyses reveal that advancements in material sciences, particularly in track composition and running shoe technology, have contributed to faster race times. However, recent stabilization trends suggest that human physiological limits may be approaching, with marginal performance gains becoming increasingly dependent on biomechanical and genetic optimizations. Additionally, the study highlights the narrowing gender performance gap, driven by advancements in sports science, improved access to elite training, and evolving competition structures. Conclusions: Regulatory measures, particularly in anti-doping enforcement, have played a crucial role in preserving fair competition and influencing performance trends. Future research should explore the interplay between genetic predisposition, neuromuscular efficiency, and emerging sports technologies to determine whether further performance breakthroughs are feasible. The implications of this study extend to athlete development strategies, regulatory policies, and the ethical considerations of performance enhancement in sprinting. This research provides a robust statistical foundation for understanding sprinting evolution and offers insights into the potential trajectories of elite performance in the coming decades.