Study aim: Real-time EEG neurofeedback (NFB) training is gaining popularity as a cognitive-motor enhancement tool in elite sports. However, its protocol-specific effectiveness across disciplines and outcome domains remains unclear. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of real-time EEG NFB in elite athletes, focusing on protocol characteristics, targeted outcomes, and effect sizes. Material and methods: A search of six databases (2000–2025) identified 24 studies involving national- or international-level athletes. Protocols were categorized by frequency band (e.g., SMR, beta, theta), sport discipline, and performance domain (cognitive, motor, psychological). Risk of bias was assessed using RoB 2 and ROBINS-I; GRADE was applied to evaluate evidence certainty. Eleven studies provided quantitative data for meta-analysis using standardized mean differences (SMD). Results: Most studies involved individual sports, with judo, archery, and shooting most common. SMR and beta protocols dominated in precision sports; theta protocols were prevalent in combat sports. Meta-analysis showed a large pooled effect (SMD = 1.26; 95% CI: 1.05–1.45), with high heterogeneity ( I ² = 94.1%). GRADE indicated moderate certainty for cognitive and psychological outcomes. Conclusion: EEG NFB appears effective in enhancing attention, motor control, and anxiety regulation in elite athletes. However, methodological variability highlights the need for standardized protocols and further replication.

Background: The stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) is essential for explosive lower-limb actions in court-based sports like badminton. Traditional jump assessments may miss subtle neuromechanical changes. Recent developments in real-time electromyography (EMG) and multivariate analysis—such as synergy-based models—enable more precise, individualized diagnostics in sport-specific contexts.Objectives: This study examined the neuromechanical effects of a 4-week EMG-guided SSC training program in elite badminton players and developed predictive models to identify early training responders.Methods: Twenty-four national-level athletes were randomized into an experimental group (EG, n = 12), receiving EMG-guided feedback, and a control group (CG, n = 12), performing similar tasks with sham feedback. Key outcome measures included reactive strength index (RSI), impulse metrics, and EMG latency, recorded pre- and post-intervention. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) were used to assess adaptations. Random Forest and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) models predicted post-intervention responder status.Results: The EG demonstrated significant improvements in EMG latency (−12.2 to −16.5 ms, p < 0.05), RSI (+13.4%, p = 0.014), and impulse dynamics. PCA identified five components explaining 78.3% of the total variance, with EG athletes clustering around neuromuscular timing dimensions. LDA showed moderate group separation (AUC = 0.72). ML models performed well in classification (AUC = 0.92; F1 = 0.89), though small sample size raises concerns of overfitting.Conclusion: EMG-guided SSC training promotes meaningful neuromechanical adaptation in elite players. Machine learning and dimensionality reduction may help detect early performance shifts, though findings require validation in larger, more diverse cohorts.

Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is a highly dynamic combat sport that requires precise motor coordination and technical execution. Video-based motion analysis, including two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) motion capture systems, plays a critical role in optimizing movement patterns, enhancing training efficiency, and reducing injury risk. However, the comparative validity of 2D and 3D systems for evaluating punching mechanics under external stressors remains unclear. This study aimed to first validate the measurement agreement between 2D and 3D motion analyses during sagittal-plane punches, and second, to examine the impact of fatigue and balance disruption on arm kinematics and punch dynamics in elite MMA athletes. Twenty-one male MMA fighters (mean age: 24.85 ± 7.24 years) performed standardized straight right punches (SRPs) and swing punches (SPs) under three experimental conditions: normal, balance-disrupted, and fatigued. Participants were instructed to deliver maximal-effort punches targeting a designated striking pad placed at a consistent height and distance. Each punch type was executed three times per condition. Kinematic data were collected using the my Dartfish Express(version 7.2.0) app (2D system) and MaxPRO infrared motion capture system (3D system). Statistical analyses included Pearson’s correlation coefficients, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and linear mixed models (LMMs). Strong correlations (r = 0.964–0.999) and high intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) values (0.81–0.99) confirmed the high reliability of 2D analysis for sagittal-plane techniques. Fatigue significantly decreased punch velocity and impact force (p < 0.01), while increasing joint angle variability (p < 0.01). These findings highlight the complementary use of 2D and 3D motion capture methods, supporting individualized monitoring, adaptive technique evaluation, and performance optimization in combat sports.

Background: Electromyographic (EMG) normalization is essential for accurately measuring muscle activity across different populations and tasks. Various methods, including Maxi-mum Voluntary Isometric Contraction (MVIC) and Recurrence Quantification Analysis (RQA), have been employed to improve measurement reliability. However, discrepancies in results across studies necessitate a comprehensive review of normalization techniques. Objective: This report analyzed 40 research studies to evaluate EMG normalization and assessment methods, focusing on their reliability, applicability, and effectiveness across healthy and clinical populations. Methods: The studies employed a range of normalization techniques, including MVIC, submaximal con-tractions, task-specific approaches, and advanced methods such as RQA and Pre-Fatigue Maximal Voluntary Contraction (PFMVC). The analysis considered the suitability of each method based on participant characteristics and movement tasks. Results: MVIC demonstrated consistent reliability in healthy populations, whereas dynamic and task-specific normalization methods were advan-tageous in specific research contexts. Clinical studies reported difficulties in performing maximal contractions, suggesting the need for alternative normalization methods for patients. Emerging techniques, such as RQA and PFMVC, required specialized expertise and resources. Conclusion: Method selection should align with study parameters, considering population characteristics and task demands. Researchers highlighted trade-offs between reliability, validity, and feasibility, emphasizing the need for further comparative research to refine EMG normalization practices.

Background: Personality traits, particularly Conscientiousness, are recognised as crucial psychological factors contributing to success in elite-level athletes. Emerging evidence suggests that individual differences in these traits are influenced by environmental exposure and genetic variation, especially within the dopaminergic system. The DRD2 promoter polymorphism rs1799732, which affects dopamine D2 receptor expression, may modulate goal-directed behaviour and self-regulation traits. Methods: This study included 323 participants (141 elite mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes and 182 non-athlete controls). Participants completed the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Genotyping for the DRD2 rs1799732 polymorphism was conducted using real-time PCR. Group comparisons and two-way ANOVA were used to assess genotype–phenotype associations and gene × environment interactions. Results: Athletes scored significantly higher on Conscientiousness than controls. A significant main effect of the DRD2 rs1799732 genotype and a genotype × group interaction were observed for Conscientiousness. Specifically, athletes with the ins/ins genotype exhibited the highest levels of Conscientiousness, whereas individuals with the del/del genotype showed the lowest scores. No significant associations were found for other personality traits. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the DRD2 promoter polymorphism rs1799732 moderates the expression of Conscientiousness, particularly under the structured and demanding conditions experienced by elite athletes. Our results support a gene × environment interaction model, highlighting the importance of considering genetic predispositions in high-performance environments. These insights may inform personalised psychological support strategies tailored to athletes’ genetic profiles, enhancing motivation, self-regulation and long-term athletic development.

Introduction: The main goal of this study was to investigate the effects of a single cycle of ischemia applied before the bench press exercise on acute bar velocity changes. Materials and Methods: Twelve physically active males participated in the study. The experiment followed a randomized, cross-over design under two testing conditions. The experimental condition involved the application of a single cycle of ischemia (5 minutes; 80% arterial occlusion pressure [AOP]) before the first set of bench press exercise (2 sets at 60% 1RM). The control condition did not use ischemia. The peak and mean bar velocities were measured using a linear position transducer. Results: Two-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed no statistically significant differences in the peak or mean bar velocity between the ischemia and control conditions both during the first and the second set of the bench press exercise. Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that a single cycle of ischemia applied before the bench press exercise did not influence changes in peak or mean bar velocity.