Chlamydia is one of the most common sexually transmitted bacterial infections (STIs) worldwide. It is caused by Chlamydia trachomatis (CT), which is an obligate intracellular bacterium. In some cases, it can occur in coinfection with other parasites, increasing the pathologic potential of the infection. The treatment is based on antibiotic prescription; notwithstanding, the infection is mostly asymptomatic, which increases the risk of transmission. Therefore, some countries have implemented Chlamydia Screening Programs in order to detect undiagnosed infections. However, in Portugal, there is no CT screening plan within the National Health Service. There is no awareness in the general healthcare about the true magnitude of this issue because most of the methods used are not Nucleic Acid Amplification Technology-based and, therefore, lack sensitivity, resulting in underreporting infection cases. CT infections are also associated with possible long-term severe injuries. In detail, persistent infection triggers an inflammatory milieu and can be related to severe sequels, such as infertility. This infection could also trigger gynecologic tumors in women, evidencing the urgent need for cost-effective screening programs worldwide in order to detect and treat these individuals adequately. In this review, we have focused on the success of an implemented screening program that has been reported in the literature, the efforts made concerning the vaccine discovery, and what is known regarding CT infection. This review supports the need for further fundamental studies in this area in order to eradicate this infection and we also suggest the implementation of a Chlamydia Screening Program in Portugal.

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), such as Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) infection, have serious consequences for sexual and reproductive health worldwide. Ct is one of the most common sexually transmitted bacterial infections in the world, with approximately 129 million new cases per year. C. trachomatis is an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium. The infection is usually asymptomatic, notwithstanding, it could also be associated with severe sequels and complications, such as chronic pain, infertility, and gynecologic cancers, and thus there is an urgent need to adequately treat these cases in a timely manner. Consequently, beyond its individual effects, the infection also impacts the economy of the countries where it is prevalent, generating a need to consider the hypothesis of implementing Chlamydia Screening Programs, a decision that, although it is expensive to execute, is a necessary investment that unequivocally will bring financial and social long-term advantages worldwide. To detect Ct infection, there are different methodologies available. Nucleic acid amplification tests, with their high sensitivity and specificity, are currently the first-line tests for the detection of Ct. When replaced by other detection methods, there are more false negative tests, leading to underreported cases and a subsequent underestimation of Ct infection’s prevalence. Ct treatment is based on antibiotic prescription, which is highly associated with drug resistance. Therefore, currently, there have been efforts in line with the development of alternative strategies to effectively treat this infection, using a drug repurposing method, as well as a natural treatment approach. In addition, researchers have also made some progress in the Ct vaccine development over the years, despite the fact that it also necessitates more studies in order to finally establish a vaccination plan. In this review, we have focused on the therapeutic options for treating Ct infection, expert recommendations, and major difficulties, while also exploring the possible avenues through which to face this issue, with novel approaches beyond those proposed by the guidelines of Health Organizations.

Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) is a major cause of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) worldwide, with significant implications for reproductive health. The bacterium’s genome contains highly polymorphic regions, influencing both the type and severity of infections. These genetic variations, particularly those occurring in the major outer membrane protein (MOMP) gene, are critical for classifying the bacterium into distinct serovars and enable CT to adapt to diverse host environments, contributing to its immune evasion, persistence, and pathogenicity. Persistent or untreated urogenital infections can lead to chronic inflammation, tissue damage, and pelvic inflammatory disease, ultimately increasing the risk of ectopic pregnancy, spontaneous abortion, and infertility. This review consolidates current knowledge on the genetic diversity of CT, its potential role in modulating infection outcomes, and its immune evasion mechanisms. By integrating scientific evidence linking chlamydial infections to infertility, we underscore the urgent need for targeted research to address this critical public health challenge.

Chlamydial infections are one of the most common sexually transmitted bacterial infections worldwide, which is related to serious consequences for the mental, sexual, and reproductive health of women and men. The infection is commonly asymptomatic; consequently, screening programs for infection control have been introduced in some countries. The detection methods of Chlamydia trachomatis infections have evolved since the establishment of the first gold-standard detection method in the 1970s, the culture assay. Over the decades, many efforts were made to find methods with a higher sensitivity, until the 1990s, when, as a result of advances in molecular biology, nucleic acid amplification tests came into use with more sensitivity, and, currently, there are several available with which to detect infection. Therefore, herein, we will review the main methods used for CT detection and the differences between them, in terms of targets, infections that can be detected, sensitivity, and specificity. We will focus on some of the FDA-approved CT detection tests and highlight the major advantages and superiority of using molecular biology techniques. In addition, we will examine the larger challenges and limitations of the methods currently in use and discuss how they might be surpassed. Moreover, in this review, we will describe the next step to carry out after testing positive for CT infection.

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) constitute one of the leading causes of disease burden worldwide, leading to considerable morbidity, mortality, health expenditures, and stigma. Of note are the most common bacterial STIs, chlamydial and gonococcal infections, whose etiological agents are Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG), respectively. Despite being usually asymptomatic, in some cases these infections can be associated with long-term severe complications, such as pelvic inflammatory disease, chronic pelvic pain, infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and increased risk of other STIs acquisition. As the symptoms, when present, are usually similar in both infections, and in most of the cases these infections co-occur, the dual-test strategy, searching for both pathogens, should be preferred. In line with this, herein we focus on the main aspects of CT and NG infections, the clinical symptoms as well as the appropriate state-of-the-art diagnostic tests and treatment. Cost-effective strategies for controlling CT and NG infections worldwide are addressed. The treatment for both infections is based on antibiotics. However, the continuing global rise in the incidence of these infections, concomitantly with the increased risk of antibiotics resistance, leads to difficulties in their control, particularly in the case of NG infections. We also discuss the potential mechanism of tumorigenesis related to CT infections. The molecular bases of CT and NG infections are addressed, as they should provide clues for control or eradication, through the development of new drugs and/or effective vaccines against these pathogens.

Lung cancer is the deadliest cancer worldwide, exhibiting the highest incidence rate among all cancer types. Poor outcomes often characterize this cancer as it is commonly diagnosed in advanced stages due to its unspecific symptoms. After diagnosis, the therapeutic choice is a crucial stage that profoundly affects patients’ survival. Treatment choices for lung cancer must be made carefully, acknowledging the histological type and genetic characteristics of the tumor. Non-small cell lung cancer, the most common and complex type, has a high mutational burden, making next-generation sequencing (NGS) essential for identifying specific mutations and guiding treatment. With several approved targeted therapies already available, this approach highlights the critical role of personalized medicine in lung cancer care. Despite the current therapeutic pipeline, research trying to develop new tailored drugs considering individual patient characteristics has evolved over the years. This article aims to outline the current therapeutic approach for each type of lung cancer and present the latest insights into emerging therapies, highlighting the role of personalized medicine in enhancing treatment outcomes and improving patients’ quality of life.