Executive function is among the most affected cognitive dimensions in depression. Physical exercise may improve executive function (e.g., working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility), although this is without consensus on adults with depression. Through this systematic review, we aim to elucidate the effects of physical exercise programs on executive functions in adults with depression. The literature search was performed in four relevant electronic databases, combining keywords and medical subject headings, from inception until September 2022. Controlled interventions, involving adults with depression, and reporting working memory, inhibition, and/or cognitive flexibility pre-post-intervention data, were considered includable. Results from meta-analyses included effect size (ES, i.e., Hedges’ g) values reported with 95% confidence intervals (95%CIs), with p set at ≤0.05. Seven studies were included, including 202 men and 457 women (age: 21.0–51.2 years; mild–moderate depression). For working memory, a small favoring effect was observed in the experimental groups compared with controls (ES = 0.33, 95%CI = 0.04–0.61; p = 0.026; I² = 64.9%). For inhibition, physical exercise had a small favoring non-significant effect compared with controls (ES = 0.28, 95%CI = −0.17–0.74; p = 0.222; I² = 72.4%). Compared with the control group, physical exercise had a trivial effect on cognitive flexibility (ES = 0.09, 95%CI = −0.21–0.39; p = 0.554; I² = 68.4%). In conclusion, physical exercise interventions may improve working memory behavioral measures in adults with mild-to-moderate depression when compared with active and passive control conditions. However, the reduced number of available high-quality studies precludes more lucid conclusions.

The hip abductor muscles are vitally important for pelvis stability, and common strength deficits can negatively affect functionality. The muscle strength can be measured using different dynamometers and be evaluated in three positions (side-lying, standing, and supine). Obtained strength data can be expressed in different ways, with data normalization providing more objective and comparable results. The aim of this study was to establish the validity and reliability of three protocols in evaluating the isometric strength of the hip abductor muscles. A new functional electromechanical dynamometer assessed strength in three positions, with findings subjected to three data normalization methods. In two identical sessions, the hip abductor strengths of 29 subjects were recorded in the side-lying, standing, and supine positions. Peak force was recorded in absolute terms and normalized against body mass, fat-free mass, and an allometric technique. The peak force recorded in the side-lying position was 30% and 27% higher than in the standing and supine positions, respectively, independent of data normalization methodology. High inter-protocol correlations were found (r: 0.72 to 0.98, p ≤ 0.001). The supine position with allometric data normalization had the highest test-retest reliability (0.94 intraclass correlation coefficient and 5.64% coefficient of variation). In contrast, the side-lying position with body mass data normalization had a 0.66 intraclass correlation coefficient and 9.8% coefficient of variation. In conclusion, the functional electromechanical dynamometer is a valid device for measuring isometric strength in the hip abductor muscles. The three assessed positions are reliable, although the supine position with allometric data normalization provided the best results.

Physical activity during childhood and adolescence favors brain development and cognitive functioning, particularly the executive functions. This study aimed to assess potential associations between anthropometric parameters, physical activity, physical fitness, and executive functions among elementary school children returning to school after the COVID-19 lockdown in Chile. School-age male and female participants (n = 90; age, 10–12 years) participated in the study. To determine the association between variables, a multivariable linear regression analysis was performed. Higher fat-related anthropometric indexes were associated with lower working memory, cognitive flexibility, planning, and attention (r = −0.55 to −0.22; p = 0.031 to <0.001). In contrast, higher physical activity levels, better sprint performance, higher lower-body muscular power, and greater upper-body muscular strength were associated with better working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, planning, and/or attention (r = 0.19 to −0.54; p = 0.04 to <0.001). Current results consistently suggest the need for adequate levels of physical activity, physical fitness, and anthropometric parameters among the school-age population to promote healthy and adequate executive functions.

Exercise programs of moderate-to-vigorous intensity have been shown to improve the cognitive performance of older people. However, the specific effects of sports-based exercise programs on cognitive performance, particularly executive functions, remain unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to clarify the effects of sports-based exercise programs on executive functions in older adults using a systematic review and meta-analysis of the scientific literature. A systematic review was conducted between 1 March and 1 July 2022, to look for published scientific evidence that analyzed different sports programs that may have affected executive function in healthy older adults. Longitudinal studies, which assessed the effects of sports interventions on healthy older adults, were identified through a systematic search of the four principal electronic databases: Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and EBSCO. A total of nine studies with a total of 398 subjects met the inclusion criteria and were classified based on one or more of the following categories: working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. The DerSimonian and Laird random-effects model was performed using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software to facilitate the analysis of the studies. Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. In terms of working memory, a small but positive significant effect was noted for the intervention group compared to the control group (effect size (ES) = 0.35, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.04–0.67; p = 0.029; I² = 36.7%); in terms of inhibition, the intervention had a small favoring but no significant effect compared to the control group (ES = 0.20, 95% CI = −0.42–0.84; p = 0.517; I² = 78.8%); and in terms of cognitive flexibility, the intervention had a small favoring but no significant effect compared to the control group (ES = 0.39, 95% CI = −0.11–0.89; p = 0.131; I² = 75.5%). Our findings suggest that healthy older adults should be encouraged to participate in sports to improve their working memory; however, more studies are required in this area to reach more robust conclusions. This systematic review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (registration number: CRD42022284788).

Physical exercise is a low-cost and easy-to-implement therapeutic option proposed to reduce the negative effect of depression on the executive function cognitive dimension, including working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. Although a considerable amount of scientific literature on the topic is currently available, the effects of physical exercise interventions on the executive functions in adults with depression remain unclear. The aim of this review protocol is to synthesize the effects of physical exercise interventions on executive functions in adults with depression. Databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and EBSCO will be searched for studies by combining keywords and different medical subject headings to identify and evaluate the relevant studies from inception up to September 2022. This study will consider longitudinal studies (duration, ≥3 weeks) with a minimum of one experimental group and pre- and post-intervention measurements involving adults with depression aged 18–65 years. Studies will be included if these reported ≥1 measures of executive function, including dimensions of working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale will be used to assess the methodological quality of studies. The DerSimonian and Laird random-effects model will be used for meta-analyses, with effect size (ES, i.e., Hedges’ g) values reported with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs), and p ≤ 0.05 will indicate statistical significance. The ES values will be calculated for working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility in the experimental and control groups before and after the intervention program. Our results can help professionals and stakeholders in making better evidence-based decisions regarding the implementation of physical exercise programs in adults with depression and providing relevant information to facilitate the functional performance of this population in complex daily tasks where executive functions are essential. No ethical approval is required for this study. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42022358339.

Background: Executive function is often altered in overweight/obese children and adolescents, which has a negative impact on their learning and daily life. Furthermore, research has shown the benefits of physical exercise in improving cognitive performance. This protocol aims to define in a detailed and structured manner the procedures that will be conducted for the development of a systematic review of the literature aimed at evaluating the effects of physical exercise on the executive functions of children and adolescents (≤18 years) with overweight/obesity in comparison with peers in control groups. Methods: The Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and EBSCO databases will be searched for longitudinal studies that have at least one experimental and one control group using pre- and post-intervention measures of executive function, including working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility in the pediatric population who are overweight or obese. The risk of bias and certainty of evidence will be assessed using Cochrane RoB2 and GRADE, respectively. Furthermore, Der Simonian–Laird’s random effects model will be employed for meta-analyses. The effect sizes will be calculated with 95% confidence intervals, and p values < 0.05 indicate statistical significance for each dimension of executive function in the different groups before and after the intervention. Discussion: The results of this review may be useful for education and health professionals to design treatment plans for overweight/obese children and adolescents, offering potential benefits related to the learning and cognitive abilities of this population. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42023391420.