Liver and kidney diseases are the most frequently encountered problems around the globe. Damage to the liver and kidney may occur as a result of exposure to various drugs, chemicals, toxins, and pathogens, leading to severe disease conditions such as cirrhosis, fibrosis, hepatitis, acute kidney injury, and liver and renal failure. In this regard, the use of nanoparticles (NPs) such as silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs) has emerged as a rapidly developing field of study in terms of safe delivery of various medications to target organs with minimal side effects. Due to their physical characteristics, NPs have inherent pharmacological effects, and an accidental buildup can have a significant impact on the structure and function of the liver and kidney. By suppressing the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines iNOS and COX-2, NPs are known to possess anti-inflammatory effects. Additionally, NPs have demonstrated their ability to operate as an antioxidant, squelching the generation of ROS caused by substances that cause oxidative stress. Finally, because of their pro-oxidant properties, they are also known to increase the level of ROS, which causes malignant liver and kidney cells to undergo apoptosis. As a result, NPs can be regarded as a double-edged sword whose inherent therapeutic benefits can be refined as we work to comprehend them in terms of their toxicity.

Aflatoxins produced by some species of Aspergillus are considered secondary toxic fungal by-products in feeds and food. Over the past few decades, many experts have focused on preventing the production of aflatoxins by Aspergillus ochraceus and also reducing its toxicity. Applications of various nanomaterials in preventing the production of these toxic aflatoxins have received a lot of attention recently. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the protective impact of Juglans-regia-mediated silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against Aspergillus-ochraceus-induced toxicity by exhibiting strong antifungal activity in in vitro (wheat seeds) and in vivo (Albino rats) settings. For the synthesis of AgNPs, the leaf extract of J. regia enriched with high phenolic (72.68 ± 2.13 mg GAE/g DW) and flavonoid (18.89 ± 0.31 mg QE/g DW) contents was used. Synthesized AgNPs were characterized by various techniques, including TEM, EDX, FT-IR, and XRD, which revealed that the particles were spherical in shape with no agglomeration and fine particle size in the range of 16–20 nm. In vitro antifungal activity of AgNPs was tested on wheat grains by inhibiting the production of toxic aflatoxins by A. ochraceus. According to the results obtained from High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC) analyses, there was a correlation between the concentration of AgNPs and a decrease in the production of aflatoxin G1, B1, and G2. For in vivo antifungal activity, Albino rats were administrated with different doses of AgNPs in five groups. The results indicated that the feed concentration of 50 µg/kg feed of AgNPs was more effective in improving the disturbed levels of different functional parameters of the liver (alanine transaminase (ALT): 54.0 ± 3.79 U/L and aspartate transaminase (AST): 206 ± 8.69 U/L) and kidney (creatinine 0.49 ± 0.020 U/L and BUN 35.7 ± 1.45 U/L), as well as the lipid profile (LDL 22.3 ± 1.45 U/L and HDL 26.3 ± 2.33 U/L). Furthermore, the histopathological analysis of various organs also revealed that the production of aflatoxins was successfully inhibited by AgNPs. It was concluded that the harmful effects of aflatoxins produced by A. ochraceus can be successfully neutralized by using J. regia-mediated AgNPs.

Purpose: To investigate the protective effect of yeast sludge (YS) and its components against ochratoxin A (OTA) in broiler chicks. Methods: Ochratoxin A (OTA) was produced through solid state fermentation, and quantified using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). A total of 1250 one-day old broiler chicks of Arbreaker breed were randomly assigned to five diet groups (A - E) replicated five times in such a way that each replicate had 50 chicks. The five diet groups were: A (normal poultry feed), B (200 µg/kg OTA), C (200 µg/kg OTA plus 2 g/kg YS), D (200 µg/kg OTA plus 2 g/kg yeast sludge cell mass, YSCM), and E (200 µg/kg OTA plus 2 g/kg yeast sludge cell wall (YSCW). The study lasted 35 days. Indices of liver and kidney functions were determined, as well as histopathological examination of samples of kidney, liver and bursa of Fabricius. Results: Supplementation of chicks diet with OTA at a dose of 200 ppb significantly reduced serum levels of total protein (TP), albumin, and creatinine, but significantly raised the activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (p < 0.05). However, inclusion of YS, YSCM, and YSCW in OTA-contaminated diet significantly reversed the effect of OTA on the indices of liver and kidney functions (p < 0.05). Yeast sludge and its components also significantly ameliorated OTA-induced histological changes in the liver, kidney and bursa of Fabricius. Conclusion: These results indicate that YS and it components improve hepatorenal function and histological changes induced by OTA.