Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a serious global public health issue, recognized as a chronic and progressive disease that can affect multiple organs, including the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Research shows that there is a specific link between the GI tract and the central nervous system, termed the gut–brain axis, which consists of bidirectional exchange between these two. Several preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated intestinal barrier dysfunction, intestinal inflammation and gut dysbiosis in patients with TBI. It is proven that probiotics can modulate the inflammatory process and modify gut microbiota. Numerous animal studies and human clinical trials have proven the effectiveness of selected bacterial strains as an adjuvant treatment in reducing inflammation, infection rates and time spent in intensive care of hospitalized patients suffering from brain injury. Thus, this review summarizes the current evidence regarding the beneficial effects of probiotic administration in patients suffering from TBI-related complications. This review will help identify novel therapeutic strategies in the future as probiotics have an extensive history of apparently safe use.

Preoperative differentiation of glioma from meningioma on MRI is important for treatment planning but depends on expert interpretation. A 3D ResNet-34 with CBAM attention was trained on four-modality MRI from 2251 BraTS 2023 patients (1801 for four-fold cross-validation; 450 held out for testing) and achieved 96% accuracy, an AUC of 0.993, and an expected calibration error of 0.0165 on the test set. For layer-wise explanation, Grad-CAM and SmoothGrad were applied at the four residual stages, and a reconstruction decoder was added to obtain full-resolution, decoder-mediated attribution at the 4 × 4 × 4 bottleneck, where standard Grad-CAM is too coarse. Four quantitative metrics gave complementary results: the decoder-assisted attribution had the highest pointing-game accuracy (80.2%) and the lowest deletion AUC, whereas Layer 1 had the highest insertion AUC and Layer 2 the highest mean faithfulness delta, with no significant faithfulness difference among Layers 1, 2, and 4. Glioma was localized by most layers, while meningioma was localized mainly through the decoder-assisted pathway. A preliminary clinical review and a normalization analysis are also reported. The decoder offers an annotation-free way to obtain full-resolution attribution from deep layers of volumetric models.