The global shift towards sustainable energy solutions has prompted a reevaluation of traditional transportation methods. In this context, the replacement of electric cars with hydrogen-powered vehicles is emerging as a promising and transformative alternative. This publication explores the essence of this transition, highlighting the potential benefits and challenges associated with embracing hydrogen as a fuel source for automobiles. The purpose of this work is to provide a comprehensive comparison of electric vehicles (EVs) and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs), analyzing their respective advantages and disadvantages. Additionally, this work will outline the significant changes occurring within the automotive industry as it transitions towards sustainable mobility solutions.

In recent years, biomaterials are gaining popularity due to high need to make energy storage devices greener and safer. After the carbonization process, lignin has a slightly larger specific surface and a porous structure, which can provide a significant electrochemical double-layer capacity. When combined with kraft lignin as a binder, which helps maintain the structural integrity of the electrode, the efficient use of the active material can be enhanced. The binder facilitates better dispersion of carbonized lignin particles, reducing agglomeration and ensuring greater availability of active sites for electrolyte ions. The aim of this work is to present a novel lignin-based hard carbon as an electrode material for applications in electrochemical capacitors. To this end, a detailed physicochemical and electrochemical analysis was conducted. Kraft lignin was carbonized at temperatures ranging from 600 to 1000 °C. The resulting material is characterized by thermal stability, a low polydispersion index (PDI), and mesoporosity. Thermogravimetric (TG) analysis was used to determine changes in structure, while functional groups were analyzed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In electrochemical applications, the material exhibits high cyclic stability and no redox reactions, with the primary mechanism of charge accumulation being based on the electrochemical double layer. Additionally, low resistances contribute to improved charge storage. Graphical abstract

High initial electrochemical performance does not necessarily translate into durable energy storage. This critical review examines the capabilities and limitations of conventional characterisation techniques in assessing electrode degradation during prolonged operation of batteries and supercapacitors. Carbon-based, non-carbon, and biomass-derived electrode materials are discussed in relation to interfacial ageing, structural damage, heterogeneous ion transport, and loss of electrochemically accessible sites. Particular attention is given to distinguishing directly measured performance deterioration from diagnostic signatures and degradation mechanisms supported by complementary experimental evidence. A qualitative methodological framework is presented to guide the interpretation and integration of electrochemical, structural, morphological, and chemical characterisation results, while considering device-specific charge-storage mechanisms. The importance of monitoring cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic charge–discharge, and electrochemical impedance responses at different stages of electrode ageing is highlighted. Furthermore, the review discusses the limitations of conventional capacity and capacitance retention metrics and emphasises the value of time-resolved measurements and quantitative descriptions of degradation progression. These considerations provide a methodological perspective for improving the reliability of electrode durability assessment and supporting the development of more stable energy-storage materials.